Real Analysis

Aim

Role of Real Analysis in Mathemtics

B.Sc. 6th Semester Project

Submitted by
Abhishek Singh Farswan

Department of Mathematics
Sri Dev Suman Uttarakhand University
 Abstract
The project provides an idea to use the Real Analysis in Mathematics. It
provides some information about Real Analysis, Sequence and Series,
and test for convergence and divergence.
Real analysis is a branch of mathematics that studies the behavior
of real numbers, sequence, series and functions. Some properties of real-
valued sequence and functions that real analysis studies includes :
Convergence, limits, continuity, smoothness, differentiability and
integrability.
 Content
• Introduction ……………………………………………………..
• History and Scope of real analysis ………………………………………
• Sequence ………………………………………………………
• Cauchy’s Theorem …………………………………………….
• Series ………………………………………………………
• Test for Convergence ………………………………………………..
 Introduction

Real analysis is a branch of mathematics that studies the behavior of

real numbers, sequences, series, and functions. It is developed to
formalize concepts of numbers and functions to introduce concepts
such as limits and continuity. These concepts are fundamental to
calculus as affections are fundamental to real analysis are real valued
properties; Convergence, limits, continuity, and differentiability and
integrability.

Real analysis is different from complex analysis involves only real

numbers and their functions.

Real analysis has many applications of real world, including finding the
area of an irregulary shaped region or land, finding the mass of a
curved object or calculating the amount of paint needed to cover an
irregularly shaped surface.

Real analysis is a part of abstract or appplied mathematics. It helps

students develop the ability to analyze mathematical situations,
deductively. After knowing the introduction of Real Analysis in
Mathematics let’s we move toward the history of real Analysis in
Mathematics.
 History and Scope of Real Analysis

Analytic Geometry
In the early 1600s, René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat established the
idea that each point on a geometric line could re-present a real number.
This allowed algebraic and number theoretic techniques to solve
geometric problems.

Continuity
In 1816, Bernard Bolzano introduced the modern definition of continuity
which helped real analysis emerge as a distinct subject. However.
Bolzano's work wasn't widely known until 1870s
Calculus
In 1821, Cauchy established a firm logical foundation for calculus by using
geometric ideas and infinitesimals He rejected the principle of the
generality of algebra. which was commonly used by Euler and others.

Limits
Newton and Leibnitz introduced the concept of limits for functions in the
late 17th century to build infinitesimal calculus. Cauchy introduced the
concept of limits for sequences, and Bolzano & Weierstrass made it
rigorous in the late 19th century.
Karl Weierstras
Weierstrass is often considered as the founder of real analysis .

SCOPE
The theorems of real analysis rely on the property of the real number
system, which must be established. The real number system consists of
an uncountable set IR, together with two binary operations denoted +
and a total order denoted <. The operations make the real numbers a
field, and along with the order, an ordered held. The real number system
is the unique complete Ordered field, in the sense that any other
complete ordered field is isomorphic to it. Intuitively, completeness
means that there are no 'gaps' (or 'holes') in the real numbers. This
property distinguishes the real numbers from other ordered fields (e.g.
the rational numbers Q) and is critical to the real numbers proof of
several key properties of functions of the real numbers.
 Sequences
A sequence of real numbers is a function whose domain is the set N of
natural number and co-domain is the set R of real numbers i.e. a
function f : N→R which is defined by f(n) = an , for all n ∈ N is a
sequence of real numbers .

1 a

2 b

. .

. .

n aₙ

A sequence in a set S is a function whose domain is the set N of natural

numbers, and whose range is contained in the set S. In this chapter,
we will be concerned with sequences in R and will discuss what we
mean by the convergence of these sequences

𝙳𝚎𝚏𝚒𝚗𝚒𝚝𝚒𝚘𝚗 : A sequence of real numbers (or a sequence in R) is a

function defined on the set N = { 1,2,…..} of natural numbers whose range
is contained in the set R of real numbers.
In other words, a sequence in R assigns to each natural number n = 1, 2,
. . . a uniquely determined real number. If X : N → R is a sequence, we will
usually denote the value of X at n by the symbol xn rather than using the
function notation X(n) . The values xn are also called the terms or the
elements of the sequence. We will denote this sequence by the notations
X , (xn), ( xn : 𝚗∈N )
Of course, we will often use other letters, such as Y = (yk); Z = (zi) , and so
on, to denote sequences.

The Limit of Sequences

There are a number of different limit concepts in real analysis. The
notion of limit of a sequence is the most basic, and it will be the focus
of this chapter.
Definition : A sequence X = (xn) in R is said to converge to x ∈ R, or x
is said to be a limit of (xn) , if for every ε > 0 there exists a natural
number K(ε) such that for all n ≥ K (ε) , the terms xn satisfy |xn - x|<ε.
If a sequence has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent;
if it has no limit, we say that the sequence is divergent.
Note: The notation K(ε) is used to emphasize that the choice of K
depends on the value of ε. However, it is often convenient to write K
instead of K(ε). In most cases, a ‘‘small’’ value of e will usually require
a ‘‘large’’ value of K to guarantee that the distance | xn-x| between xn
and x is less than e for all n ≥ K = K(ε).
When a sequence has limit x, we will use the notation
lim X = x or lim (xn)= x
We will sometimes use the symbolism x n → x, which indicates the
intuitive idea that the values xn ‘‘approach’’ the number x as n → ∞.
Theorem - Every sequence is convergent iff it is Cauchy Sequence.
Proof- Suppose < xₙ> is a convergent sequence xₙ -> l as n →∞ S.t.
⇒ for any ε > 0 , 3 positive integer m sit. | xₙ - 1| < ε /2 for all n ≥m ……1
From 1 , we have. |xm - l| < ε /2
Now, |xn – xm|= |xn -l =+ l – xm| ≤ |xn – l | + | xm - l|
⇒ < xₙ > is a cauchy sequence.

Converse : Suppose < xₙ> is a Cauchy sequence.

Now, we have to show that <xn> is convergent because < xₙ > is Cauchy
for any ε ≥ 0, there exist positive Integer m. st.
|xn – xm| < ε /3 …………………. 1
because < xₙ > is Cauchy .
⇒ < xₙ > is bounded.
⇒ By Bolzano - Weierstrass theorem < xₙ> has a limit point say l .
⇒ There exists positive integer say m2 s.t.
xk ∈] l - ε /3 , l+ ε/ 3 [ for all k ≥ m2
⇒l - ε /3 < xk < l + ε /3 for all k ≥ m2
⇒ | xk - 1| < ε /3 for all k ≥ m2 …………………….. 2
Choose m = max { m1 ,m2 }
then from 1 , |xm– xk | < ε /3 ……………………… 3
Now, |xn - l| = |xn- xm + xm – xk + xk - 1|
 ≤ |xn – xm| + |xm – xk| + |xk - l|
< ε /3 + ε /3 + ε /3 < ε for all n≥m [From 1, 2 & 3]
<ε
⇒ xn -> l as n -> ∞
⇒ < xₙ> is convergent.

Example: Show that <aₙ> = <1/n> is a Cauchy sequence.

Sol : Suppose am= 1/n & an = 1/n
For m > n then am – an = |1/m - 1/n| = |(n - m)/(mn)|
= |(- (m - n))/(mn)| = |(m - n)/(mn)|
< 1/n
⇒ |am – an| < 1/n = ε
Taking n0 < 1/ ε we can get |1/m - 1/n| < ε for m, n ≥ n0
Hence, < an > is a Cauchy sequence.

Theorem: A sequence of real number < an > is bounded if and only if there
exist k ∈ R s.t. |an| ≤ k ; for all n ∈ N.
Proof: - k ≤ an ≤ k
For example, Let < an > = < nsin(π/n) >
| nsin(π/n)| ≤ n|sin(π /n)| ≤ n π /n ≤ π
⇒ |n sin( π )/n) | ≤ π
⇒ < an > is bounded sequence.

Cauchy's First Theorem on limit

Theorem: Tf < an > is a sequence of real number and lim n → ∞ an = l.
Then lim n → ∞ a1 + a2 +...+an / n = l.
Proof: Suppose an = l + bn
lim n → ∞ an = l + lim n → ∞ bn
⇒ l = l + lim n → ∞ bn [ lim n -> ∞ an = l ]
⇒ lim n → ∞ bn = 0
⇒ {bn} is a convergent sequence
For every ε > 0 there exist m ∈ N
s.t. |bn – 0 | < ε /2 ⇒ |bn| < ε/2 for all n ≥ m ……………………. 1
and {bn} is also a bounded sequence .
|bn| ≤ for all n∈N ………………………… 2
Also, a1 + a2 + …… an / n = l + b1 + b2 + …. + bn / n
⇒ | a1+ a2 +...+an / n - l|=| b1 +b2 +...+bn / n |
⇒ | a1 +a2 +...+an / n -1|<= |b1| + |b2| +...+|bn | / n
⇒|a1 +a2 +...+an / n - 1|≤ |b1| + |b2| +...+|bm |/ n + |bm+1|+|bm+2
|+….+|bm | / n
≤ (mk)/n + 1/n * (n - m) * ε /2 for all n≥m
< (mk)/n + ε /2 [ From 1 & 2 ]
If (mk)/n < ε /2 i.e. n > (2mk)/ ε
⇒ | a1 +a2 +...+an / n - 1| < ε /2 + ε /2 < ε
⇒ lim n → ∞ a1 + a2 + ……+an / n = l .

Example: Prove that lim n → ∞ 1/n ( 1 + 21/2 + 31/3 + …. +n1/n ) = 1.

Sol: limn →∞ 1 +21/2 + 31/3 + …. +n1/n / n
By cauchy's 1st Theorem,
Let an = n1/n
lim n →∞ = n1/∞ = n0 = 1
lim n → ∞ n1/n = 1
lim n → ∞ 1/n ( 1 + 21/2 + 31/3 + …. +n1/n ) = 1

Cauchy's Second Theorem on Limits

Theorem: Let <an> be a sequence of positive terms. If < an+1/an > is
convergent, then
lim n →∞ an1/n =lim n →∞ am+1/an =l.
Proof : Let lim n →∞ am+1/an =l . Then for any ε > 0 , there exist n0∈N s.t.
for all n≥n0.
| an+1/an -1|< ε ⇒ l- ε < an+1/an <1+ ε ……………………………. 1
Since n ≥ n0 . let n – n0 = k for some k ≥ 0
from eq 1 , we get k inequalities for n=n0 , n0+1 , …. n0 + k-1.
Multiplying these k inequalites we get
(l - ε )k < ano+1 /an0* an0+2/an0+1*….an0+k/an0+k-1 <(l+ ε)k
(l - ε)k < an0+k/an < (l+ ε)k ⇒ (l - ε )n-n0 < an/an0 < (l+ ε)n-no
⇒ bn <an1/n < cn
Note that lim n →∞bn = l – ε & lim n->∞ cn = l + ε
l- ε < lim n →∞ an1/n < l + ε
but ε is arbitrary , Hence lim n →∞ an1/n = l.
Example: Prove that lim n →∞ (nn/n!)1/n = l
Sol: lim n->∞ an+1/an =lim n →∞ (n+1)n+1/ (n+1)! * n! nn
=lim n →∞ (n+1)n/ (n+1)
= lim n → ∞(n+1)n/ nn
= lim n →∞(n+1/n)n
=lim n →∞ (1+ 1/n )n
Taking log on both side
log(y) = n log(1 + 1/n) )
⇒y=e
So, lim n →∞ (1+ 1/n )n =e
We know that lim n →∞ an1/n =lim n →∞ am+1/an =l.
⇒ lim n →∞ (nn/n!)1/n = l
Hence, Proved.
 Series

A series is the sum of the terms in a sequence of real numbers. Series are
a fundamental concept in analysis and are used in many scientific and
mathematical field including calculus and quantum physics.

Theorem: If ∑ an converges then lim n →∞ an = 0

Proof: Since ∑an converges, lim n →∞ Sn-∞ = l and ∑ Sn-∞ =l,
because this really says the same thing but "renumbers” the term
lim n →∞ (Sn-Sn-1) = lim n →∞ Sn - lim n →∞ Sn-1 = l - l = 0
But Sn – Sn-1 = (a0 + a1 + … + an)-( a0 + a1 + … +an-1 )=an ,
So as desired lim n → ∞ an = 0

This theorem presents an easy divergence test: if given a Series ∑an the
limit lim n →∞ does not exist or has a value other than zero, the series
diverges. Note well that the converse is not true: If lim n → ∞ an = 0 then
the series does not necessarily converge.
Example : Show that ∑ n/n+1 diverges.
Sol : an = n/(n + 1)
lim n →∞ an = lim n →∞ n/n+1 = lim n →∞ n/n(1+1/n)
= lim n →∞ 1/( 1+1/n) = 1 ≠ 0
⇒ ∑ n/n+1 is divergent.
Theorem: A p-series with p>0 converges iff P > 1 .
Proof: We use the integral test; we have already done p = 1 , so assume
that p ≠ 1 .
∫1∞ 1/xp = lim D →∞ [x1-p/1-p]1D = lim D →∞ D1-p/1-p – 1/1-p
If P > 1 the 1 - p < 0 and lim D →∞ D1-p = 0 so the integral converges. If
0 < P < 1 then 1-p >0 and lim D → ∞ D1-p = ∞ so the integral diverges.

Example : Show that ∑1 to ∞ 1/(h3) converges and ∑n = 1 to ∞ 1/(n1/2)

diverges.

Solution : ∑n = 1 to ∞ 1/(n3)
Here P = 3 > 1 .
So it converges
Now, ∑n = 1 to ∞ 1/n1/2
Here P = ½ < 1.
So it diverges.

Now we will study about the Test for Convergence……………..

 Test for Convergence -

Comparison Test
Let ∑un and ∑vn are two positive terms series and there exist m ∈ N s.t.
|un| ≤ |vn| for all n≥m
1. ∑vn converges ⇒ ∑un converges.
2. ∑un diverges ⇒ ∑vn diverges

Example: Check the convergence of ∑ n = 1 to ∞ n/(n2 – cos2 (n).

Sol : We know that, n2 – cos2 (n) ≤ n2
⇒1/(n2 – cos2(n)) ≥ 1/(n2) ⇒ n/(n2 – cos2(n)) ≥ n/(n2)
⇒n/(n2 – cos2 (n)) ≥ 1/n
By P-series test ∑n = 1 to ∞ 1/n is divergent.
⇒ ∑n = 1 to ∞ n/(n2 – cos2 (n)) is also divergent.

Limit Comparison Test

Let ∑un and ∑vn be two positive term series such that lim n →∞ un/vn = l
where I is non-zero finite number.
Then ∑un and ∑vn converges or diverges together.
Example: ∑n = 1 to ∞ √(n/(n + 1)3 .
Sol: Here un = √(n/(n + 1)3 then vn = √n/n3 = 1/n
lim n -> ∞ un/vn = lim n → ∞ √n/(n + 1)3 * n/1
= lim n → ∞ √n/n3* (1 + 1/n)3 * n
= lim n → ∞ 1/n * √1/(1 + 1/n)3* n = 1 (finite value)
But by P-series test, ∑ n = 1 to ∞ 1/n is divergent.
So, ∑un = ∑ n = 1 to ∞ √(n/(n + 1)3 is also divergent.

D'Alembert Ratio Test

Let ∑un be a positive term series , then
1. It is convergent if lim n → ∞ un+1/ un < 1
2. It is divergent f lim n → ∞ un+1/un > 1
3. Test fails if lim n → ∞ un+1 /un = 1 .

Example: Test the convergence of 1 + (2p)/2! + (3p)/(3!) +……

Sol: Here, un = np/n! , un+1 = (n+1)p/(n+1)!
lim n → ∞ un+1/un = lim n → ∞ (n+1)p/ (n+1)! * n!/ np
=lim n → ∞ un+1/ un = lim n → ∞ (n+1)p /(n+1)n!* n!/np
= lim n → ∞ np (1+ 1/ n )p/ (n+1)np = (1 + 0)p/(∞ + 1) = 0 < 1
So, given series is convergent.
Cauchy’s Root Test

The series ∑un of positive term is convergent if lim n →∞ n(un/un+1 -1) >1
and divergent lim n → ∞ n(un/un+1 -1) < 1 but test fail if lim n →∞ n(un/un+1
-1) = 1.

Example-Test the convergence of series ∑ [(n + 1)/n)n+1 - (n + 1)/n]-n .

Sol- Here un = [(n + 1)/n)n+1 - (n + 1)/n]-n
lim n -> ∞(un)1/n = lim n →∞ [((n+1/n)n+1 – (n+1/n))-n]1/n
= lim n → ∞ 1/ (n+1/n)n+1 – (n+1/n)
= lim n → ∞ 1/(n + 1)/n)n * (1 + 1/n) - (1 + 1/n)
= 1/(e - 1) < 1
So, Given series is convergent.

Raabe's Test
Let ∑un be a positive term series then it is convergent if lim n →∞ n(
un/un+1 -1) > 1 and divergent if lim n →∞ n( un/un+1 -1) < 1. Again the test
fails if lim n →∞ n( un/un+1 -1) = 1 .

Example Test the convergence of scries 1 + 1/2 * 1/3 + 1/2 * 3/4 * 1/5 +
1/2 * 3/4 * 5/6* 1/7 + …………….
Sol: Here, un = 1.3.5….(2n-3)/2.4.6….(2n-2) * 1/(2n-1)
Un+1 = 1.3.5….(2n-3)(2n-1)/2.4.6….(2n-2)(2n) * 1/(2n+1)
Using D’Alembert test
lim n →∞ un+1/un = lim n →∞ 1.3.5….(2n-3)/2.4.6….(2n-2) * 1/(2n-1) ×
2.4.6….(2n-2)(2n) * 1/(2n+1) / 1.3.5….(2n-3)(2n-1)
= lim n ->∞ (2n-1)2/2n(2n+1)
= lim n ->∞ 4n2(1- 1/2n)2 / 4n2(1+ 1/2n)
=1 (Test Fail)
Now Using Raabe’s test
lim n →∞ n( un/un+1 -1) = lim n →∞ n [2n(2n+1)/(2n-1)2 -1 ]
= lim n →∞ n(6n-1)/(2n-1)2
= lim n →∞ n2(6 - 1/n)/n2(2 – 1/n)2
= 6/4 = 3/2 > 1
Hence, the given series is convergent .

Logarithmic Test
Let ∑un be series of non-negative real number, then ∑un is convergent if
lim n →∞ (n log un/un+1 ) > 1 and ∑un is divergent if lim n →∞ (n log
un/un+1 ) < 1

Example: Test the convergence of 1 + x/2 + 2!/32 * x2 + 3!/43 * x3 +….

Sol: Here un = (n-1)!xn-1 / nn-1 & un+1 = n! xn /(n+1)n
By D'Alembert Ratio test
lim n →∞ un+1/un = lim n →∞ n!xn/(n+1)n * nn-1/(n-1)!xn-1
= lim n →∞ n! nn-1x/(n+1)n(n-1)!
= lim n →∞ n(n-1)!nn-1x/(n+1)n(n-1)!
= lim n →∞ nnx/nn(1+ 1/n)n
= x/e
⇒ This series is convergent if x/e < 1 and divergent if x/e >1 but x/e = 1
⇒ x=e , then test fails.
Now, we use logarithmic test
lim n →∞ (n log un/un+1 ) = lim n →∞ n log [(1+1/n)n /e ]
= lim n →∞ n[log(1+1/n)n – log e]
= lim n →∞ n[n log (1+1/n) -1]
= lim n →∞ n[n(1/n – 1/2n2 + 1/3n3 - …) -1 ]
= lim n →∞ n[1-1/2n +1/2n2 - …. -1]
= lim n →∞ [ -1/2 + 1/3n - ….]
= -1/2 < 1
⇒Given series is divergent.

Second Logarithmic Test

Let ∑un be series of positive terms s.t. lim n →∞ {(n log un/un+1 -1)log n}=l
then the series is
1. Convergent if l > 1
2. Divergent if l < 1
3 Test fail if l = 1

Example: Test for convergence of 1 + (1/2)p + (1 * 3)/(2 * 4))p + (1 * 3

[1.3….(2n-1)(2n+1)/2.4…..2n( 2n+2)]p 5)/(2 * 4 * 6)p + …………
Sol: un = [1.3……(2n-1)/2.4……2n]p
& un+1 = [1.3….(2n-1)(2n+1)/2.4…..2n( 2n+2)]p
By D'Alembert Rotio test
lim n →∞ un+1/un = lim n →∞[1.3….(2n-1)(2n+1)/2.4…..2n( 2n+2)]p *
[2.4….2n/1.3….(2n-1)]p
= lim n →∞ [2n+1/2n+2]p =1 ( Test fail)
Now, we apply logarithmic test
lim n →∞ (n log un/un+1 ) = lim n →∞ n log ( 2n+2/2n+1 )p
= lim n →∞ np[log ( 2n(1 + 1/n)/2n(1 + 1/2n))]
= lim n →∞ np[log (1+1/n) – log(1+1/2n)]
= lim n →∞ np[(1/n – 1/2n2 +…)-(1/2n - …)]
= lim n →∞ np[(1-1/2)1/n – (1/2-1/8)1/n2 + …]
= lim n →∞ p[1/2-3/8n+…..] = p/2
Hence ∑un is convergent if p/2 >1 and divergent if p/2 < 1 but test fails if
p/2 = 1 ⇒ p=2, then
Now we apply second logarithmic test
lim n →∞ {(n log un/un+1 -1)log n}= lim n →∞ [p(1/2-(3/8)1/n+….)-1]log n
= lim n →∞ [2(1/2-3/8n+…)-1]logn
= lim n →∞[1-3/4n + …. -1]log n
= lim n →∞[-3/4n + ….]log n = 0 < 1
⇒ So, the given series is divergent.

De-Morgan's & Bertrand's Test

Let ∑un be a series of positive terms s.t. lim n →∞ [{n (un/un+1 -1) -1}log
n] = l then the series is
1.Convergent if l > 1
2. Divergent if l < 1
3. Test fail if l = 1

Example:Test the convergence of Series 12/22 + 12.32/22.42 +

12.32.52/22.42.62 + …
Sol : un = 12.32….(2n-1)2/22.42…(2n)2 &
un+1 = 12.32….(2n-1)2(2n+1)2/22.42….(2n)2(2n+2)2
By D'Alembert test
lim n →∞ un+1/un = lim n →∞(2n+1)2/(2n+2)2 = 1
so, test fails.
Now we apply Raabe's test
lim n →∞ n( un/un+1 -1) = lim n →∞ n [(2n+2)2/(2n+1)2 -1 ]
= lim n →∞ n [4n2+4+8n-4n2-1-4n/(2n+1)2]
= lim n →∞ n(4n+3)/(2n+1)2
= lim n →∞ 4n2(1+3/4n)/4n2(1+1/2n)2
= 1 ( Test fails )
Now, we use De – Morgan’s Test
lim n →∞ [{n (un/un+1 -1) -1}log n] = lim n →∞ [n(4n+3)/(2n+1) -1] log n
= lim n →∞ [4n2+3n-4n2-4n-1/(2n+1)2]logn
= lim n →∞ [-n-1/(2n+1)2]log n
= 0 < 1
So, the given series is divergent.

Leibnitz Theorem
Let < un > be a sequence s.t.
(a) un >= 0
(b) un+1 <= un
(c) lim n → ∞ un = 0
Then the alternating series ∑ (- 1)n-1un is convergent.

Proof: Let ∑ (- 1)n-1un be any alternating series then SOPS is

<Sn>= u1 – u2 + u3 – u4 +….. (-1)n-1un
We know that if < S2n> and < S2n+1 > are convergence to same limit then
< Sn > is convergent.
Now, S2n = u1 – u2 +………. U2n-1 -u2n
& S2n+2 =u1 -u2 +...u2n-1 – u2n +u2n+1 -u2n+2
S2n+2 - S2n = u2n+1 -u2n+2 [ Since un+1 ≤ un ]
⇒ S2n+2 - S2n ≥ 0
⇒ S2n is monotonically increasing sequence.
Also, we have
S2n = u1 – u2 + u3 – u4 +…….+u2n-1 -u2n
=u1 -[( u2 – u3 + u4 -...- u2n-1 +u2n ] =u1 -[ (u2 – u3) + (u4 – u5) +……+u2n ]
⇒ S2n <= u1
⇒ S2n is bounded above.
Hence < S2n > is convergent and lim n -> ∞ S2n = l .
Now ,
for S2n+1 =u1 -u2 +u3 -u4 +... +u2n-1 – u2n + u2n+1
⇒ S2n+1 = S2n + u2n+1
⇒ lim n →∞ S2n+1 = lim n → ∞ S2n + lim n → ∞ u2n+1
⇒ lim n → ∞ S2n+1 = l+0 = l
⇒ < Sn > is convergent.
⇒ ∑ (- 1)n-1un is convergent.
Example: Test for convergence of ∑n + 1 to ∞ (- 1)n-1 * 1/n2 .
Sol: Here un = 1/ n2
We know that
(a) un >= 0
(b) un is decreasing
(c) lim n →∞ un = lim n →∞ 1/n2 = 0
So, Given Series is convergent.

Application Of Real Analysis in Mathematics :

Real analysis provides the rigorous foundation for calculus and related
fields, ensuring the precision and reliability of mathematical calculations.
It's crucial for various applications, including engineering, physics, and
computer science, where accuracy is paramount. Real analysis ensures
that mathematical concepts like limits, continuity, and convergence are
properly defined and applied, leading to more robust and reliable results.
Real analysis provides the rigorous definitions and proofs needed for
calculus, ensuring its accuracy and applicability.
It deals with concepts like limits, continuity, differentiability, and
integrability, which are fundamental to calculus.
This rigor is essential for building a solid understanding of calculus and its
applications in various fields.
Real analysis finds applications in several areas:

Foundation of Calculus:
It provides the theoretical basis for understanding concepts like
derivatives and integrals.

Differential and Integral Equations:

Real analysis is essential for studying and solving differential and integral
equations, which are used in various fields like physics, engineering, and
economics.

Numerical Analysis:
It informs the development and analysis of numerical methods for
approximating solutions to mathematical problems.

Functional Analysis:
Real analysis is a prerequisite for studying functional spaces and
operators, which are crucial in areas like partial differential equations and
quantum mechanics.

Optimization Theory:
Real analysis is used to develop and analyze algorithms for finding
optimal solutions to problems in various fields .
Probability Theory:
It provides the theoretical basis for probability distributions and
stochastic processes.

Real-World Applications:
Real analysis can be used to model and solve problems in physics,
engineering, economics, and other fields .
For example, understanding the properties of functions and limits is
crucial for building models in physics and engineering. Real analysis also
helps in understanding the behavior of complex systems and developing
efficient algorithms for solving problems.

As Real Analysis is useful in physics , engineering and computer science .

It is as follows :

Engineering and Physics:

Real analysis is used in fields like mechanical engineering and physics to
model and analyze physical systems.
It helps in calculating stress on bridges, predicting rocket trajectories, and
solving other complex engineering problems that require precise
mathematical models.
The concepts of limits, continuity, and differentiability are crucial for
understanding and solving differential equations, which are essential for
many engineering and physics applications.
Computer Science:
Real analysis plays a role in algorithms and data structures, ensuring their
efficiency and correctness.
It is used in numerical analysis, which is crucial for solving mathematical
problems using computer programs.
Real analysis helps in developing and analyzing algorithms for tasks like
image processing and signal analysis.
Real analysis provides a foundational understanding for numerous areas
within computer science, especially in numerical analysis, probability,
and theoretical computer science. Concepts like continuity, limits, and
convergence are crucial for understanding numerical algorithms and the
behavior of computer systems.

In summary, real analysis is a crucial tool for ensuring the accuracy and
reliability of mathematical calculations and models across various fields.
Its applications range from foundational concepts in calculus to advanced
mathematical theories and practical applications in engineering,
computer science, and other disciplines.

Now, we will conclude about the Real Analysis –

 Conclusion
Real Analysis is an area of analysis that studies concepts such as
sequences and their limits, continuity, differentiation, intrgration and
sequences of functions. Real analysis focuses on the real numbers, often
including positive and negative infinity to form the extended real line.
Real analysis is applied in numerous ways in daily life, from the
functioning of electronic devices like smartphones and computers to the
design of vehicles, bridges and buildings .
Hence , Real Analysis plays a crucial role in daily life .

References
• T.M. Apostol, Mathematical analysis
• S.J. Publication
• Shanti Narayan Dr. M.D. Raisinghania
• ResearchGate web page.
• Medium.PRMJ web page.
• American Mathematical society web page.