Advanced Methods in Engineering Design

Unit-1

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

 Introduction

To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need or to solve a
specific problem. If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical reality, then the
product must be functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable.
Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making process. Decisions
sometimes have to be made with too little information, occasionally with just the right amount of
information, or with an excess of partially contradictory information. Decisions are sometimes made
tentatively, with the right reserved to adjust as more becomes known. The point is that the
engineering designer has to be personally comfortable with a decision-making, problem-solving role.

Mechanical engineers are associated with the production and processing of energy and with
providing the means of production, the tools of transportation, and the techniques of automation. The
skill and knowledge base are extensive. Among the disciplinary bases are mechanics of solids and
fluids, mass and momentum transport, manufacturing processes, and electrical and information
theory. Mechanical engineering design involves all the disciplines of mechanical engineering.

 Design process&Shigley’s Design Model

 The complete design process, from start to finish, is often outlined as in Fig. 1–1. The
process begins with an identification of a need and a decision to do something about it. After much
iteration, the process ends with the presentation of the plans for satisfying the need. Depending on
the nature of the design task, several design phases may be repeated throughout the life of the
product, from inception to termination. In the next several subsections, we shall examine these steps
in the design process in detail.

- Identification of need generally starts the design process. Recognition of the need and phrasing the
need often constitute a highly creative act, because the need may be only a vague discontent, a
feeling of uneasiness, or a sensing that something is not right.

- The definition of problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for the object that
is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics and
dimensions of the space the object must occupy, and all the limitations on these quantities. We can
regard the object to be designed as something in a black box. In this case we must specify the inputs
and outputs of the box, together with their characteristics and limitations. The specifications define
the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the operating temperature, and
the reliability. Specified characteristics can include the speeds, feeds, temperature limitations,
maximum range, expected variations in the variables, dimensional and weight limitations, etc.

The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system elements is sometimes called the invention of
the concept or concept design. This is the first and most important step in the synthesis task. Various
schemes must be proposed, investigated, and quantified in terms of established metrics.The fleshing
out of the scheme progresses, analyses must be performed to assess whether the system performance
is satisfactory or better, and, if satisfactory, just how well it will perform. System schemes that do
not survive analysis are revised, improved, or discarded. Those with potential are optimized to
determine the best performance of which the scheme is capable. Competing schemes are compared
so that the path leading to the most competitive product can be chosen. Figure 1–1 shows that
synthesis and analysis and optimization are intimately and iteratively related. We have noted, and we
emphasize, that design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps, evaluate
the results, and then return to an earlier phase of the procedure. Thus, we may synthesize several
components of a system, analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this
has on the remaining parts of the system. Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design
process. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design and usually involves the testing of a
prototype in the laboratory. Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the needs. Is it
reliable? Will it compete successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to
use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or use? How likely is it
to result in product-liability lawsuits? And is insurance easily and cheaply obtained? Is it likely that
recalls will be needed to replace defective parts or systems? The project designer or design team will
need to address a myriad of engineering and non-engineering questions.

Vital presentation step in the design process. Undoubtedly, many great designs, inventions, and
creative works have been lost to posterity simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to
properly explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when
presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to
sell or to prove to them that their solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the
time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted. When designers sell a new
idea, they also sell themselves. If they are repeatedly successful in selling ideas, designs, and new
solutions to management, they begin to receive salary increases and promotions; in fact, this is how
anyone succeeds in his or her profession.

 Asimov’s Model of Design

The Asimov Model is a structured approach to problem-solving in engineering and product

design, emphasizing systematic creativity, innovation, and logical progression. Although Isaac
Asimov is more famous for his work in science fiction, he also contributed to scientific
methodologies, including structured design thinking.
Morris Asimow was along with the first to give a detailed explanation of the complete design
process in what he called the morphology of design. It is defined by the phases and their constituent
steps. Design is succession from the abstract to the concrete. The various activities that make up the
first three phases of design: conceptual design, embodiment design, and detail design & the
remaining four phases belong to production, distribution, consumption & retirement.

Phase-1 :Conceptual Design/ Feasibility study Conceptual design is the process by which the design
is initiated, carried to the point of creating a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a
single best concept. It is sometimes called the feasibility study. A design begins with a feasibility
study; the purpose is to achieve useful solutions to the design problem. Sometimes a design group is
assigned a project for which a design concept has been fixed. Conceptual design is the phase that
requires the greatest creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordination among
many functions in the business organization. The following are the discrete activities that we
consider under conceptual design.

Conceptual Design/ Feasibility study Conceptual design is the process by which the design is
initiated, carried to the point of creating a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a
single best concept. It is sometimes called the feasibility study. A design begins with a feasibility
study; the purpose is to achieve useful solutions to the design problem. Sometimes a design group is
assigned a project for which a design concept has been fixed. Conceptual design is the phase that
requires the greatest creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordination among
many functions in the business organization. The following are the discrete activities that we
consider under conceptual design.
Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely understand the customers’
needs and to communicate them to the design team. Information gathered from customers and
research on products from market literature and experimentation contributes to creating a ranked
listing of customer needs and wants. These are the needs that form the end user’s opinion about the
quality of a product.

b) Problem definition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes. What has to be
accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer? This involves analysis of competitive products,
the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of constraints and trade-offs. Quality
function deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for linking customer needs with design requirements.
A detailed listing of the product requirements is called a product design specification (PDS).
Problem definition, in its full scope

c) Gathering information: The need for information can be crucial at many steps in a design project.
We will need to find these bits of information quickly, and validate them as to their reliability

d) Conceptualization: Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that potentially
satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, combined with efficient information
gathering, are the key activities.

e) Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a single
preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires several iterations.
Theory for decision making is rooted in many different academic disciplines, including pure
mathematics, economics (macro and micro), psychology (cognitive and behavioral), probability, and
many others

f) Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept has been
selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of design parameters,
usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ) parameters, and to living with trade-offs between cost and
performance. g) Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design
review will be held. The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable and that it
is economically worthwhile. It will also look at a detailed product development schedule. This is
needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to identify the resources in people,
equipment, and money needed to complete the project.

Norton’s Design Model

An Integrated Approach, introduced a structured and analytical approach to mechanical design.

Norton’s model emphasizes kinematics, stress analysis, and failure prevention, making it widely
used in machine design, robotics, and mechanical systems development.

Key Features of Norton’s Design Model

✔Focus on Mechanical & Machine Design – Primarily used for designing gears, shafts, bearings,
linkages, etc.
✔Integrated Engineering Approach – Combines kinematics, statics, dynamics, and material
selection.
✔Failure Prevention & Reliability – Ensures components withstand stress, fatigue, and operational
loads.
✔Analytical & Computational Tools – Uses advanced simulations, FEA (Finite Element Analysis),
and CAD modeling.

Stage 1: Recognition of Need

1. Identify Problem: Identify a problem or opportunity that requires a design solution.
2. Define Design Brief: Develop a design brief that outlines the problem, goals, and objectives.

Stage 2: Definition
1. Gather Information: Gather information about the problem, users, and context.
2. Analyze Data: Analyze the data to identify patterns, trends, and insights.
3. Define Design Requirements: Define the design requirements and specifications.

Stage 3: Conceptualization
1. Generate Ideas: Generate a wide range of ideas and concepts.
2. Evaluate Ideas: Evaluate the ideas against the design requirements and specifications.
3. Select Concepts: Select the most promising concepts for further development.

Stage 4: Prototyping
1. Create Prototypes: Create prototypes of the selected concepts.
2. Test Prototypes: Test the prototypes with users to gather feedback.
3. Refine Prototypes: Refine the prototypes based on the feedback.

Stage 5: Implementation
1. Finalize Design: Finalize the design based on the refined prototypes.
2. Develop Design: Develop the design into a working product or system.
3. Test Design: Test the design to ensure it meets the design requirements and specifications.

Stage 6: Evaluation
1. Evaluate Design: Evaluate the design to determine its effectiveness.
2. Gather Feedback: Gather feedback from users to identify areas for improvement.
3. Refine Design: Refine the design based on the feedback and evaluation.

Stage 7: Maintenance
1. Maintain Design: Maintain the design to ensure it continues to meet user needs.
2. Update Design: Update the design to reflect changes in user needs or technology.
3. Retire Design: Retire the design when it is no longer needed or effective.

Norton's Design Process is a flexible and iterative approach to design that emphasizes the
importance of user-centered design, prototyping, and evaluation.
Applications of Norton’s Design Model

✅Machine Design – Used ingear trains, camshafts, bearings, and structural components.
✅Robotics & Automation – Helps in designing robot arms, actuators, and motion control systems.
✅Automotive & Aerospace – Used for engine components, transmissions, and linkages.
✅Heavy Machinery & Industrial Equipment – Ensuresdurability and high-load capacity in machines.

 Problem Formation in the Design Process

Problem formation is the first and most crucial step in the design process. It involves identifying,
analyzing, and defining the right problem before developing a solution. A well-defined problem
ensures that the design process is focused, efficient, and user-centered.

1. Importance of Problem Formation in Design

a. Ensures that the real problem is addressed rather than symptoms.

b. Saves time and resources by preventing unnecessary iterations.
c. Leads to more innovative and effective solutions.
d. Helps designers align with user needs and business goals.

2. Steps in Problem Formation

Step 1: Identify the Problem

 Observe and analyze pain points, inefficiencies, and gaps in existing solutions.
 Consider who is affected, where, and why the issue occurs.
 Ask:
o What is the challenge?
o Who experiences the problem?
o What impact does it have?

Step 2: Research & Gather Data

 Conduct user research (interviews, surveys, observations).

 Analyze market trends and competitor solutions.
 Use tools like:
o Empathy Mapping – Understanding user emotions and needs.
o SWOT Analysis – Identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
o 5 Whys Method – Digging into the root cause of the problem.
This helps in defining the real issue.

Step 3: Define the Problem Statement

A problem statement should be:

✅Clear and specific – No vague descriptions.
✅User-centered – Focuses on the target audience.
✅Solution-agnostic – Avoids suggesting solutions too early.

Step 4: Reframe & Refine the Problem

 Explore the problem from different perspectives.

 Use Root Cause Analysis to dig deeper.
 Reframe the question to allow for creative solutions.

Step 5: Define Constraints & Goals

 Identify technical, financial, and time limitations.

 Set measurable success criteria.

Step 6: Validate with Stakeholders & Users

 Share the problem statement with users, designers, and stakeholders.

 Gather feedback and refine the problem if necessary.

 Product Design

Product design is the process of imagining, conceptualising, testing, iterating and refining a product,
service or experience so it’s ready for its end user. Designers spend significant time on each of these
steps, meaning that product design is a blend of research, strategy, industry knowledge and creative
thinking which is the process of deciding the unique characteristics and features of the company's
product. The survival of any company in the global market lies in its ability to develop new and
innovative products and services. You will also learn about process selection, which is the
development of the process necessary to produce desired product or services. Product design and
process selection affect product quality, product cost, and customer satisfaction. If the product is not
well designed or if the manufacturing process is not true to the product design, the quality of the
product may suffer. If a product is to achieve customer satisfaction, it must have the combined
characteristics of good design, competitive pricing, and the ability to fill a market need. The product-
design function involves the development of specifications of a product that will be functionally
sound, have eye appeal, and will give satisfactory performance for sufficiently long life.

Market research, product development project, customers' suggestions, sales advice and individual
sources are some of the major sources from which the idea of a product may originate. By individual
source, we mean an individual person hitting upon a plan for a new or improved product. It should
be apparent that not every idea necessarily leads to a new product that is placed on the market.
However, every new product represents the crystallization of someone's idea. It has been estimated
that on the average it takes nearly 500 possibilities at the idea stage for every single new product that
is produced. The I majority of ideas are thus eliminated at new-product conferences or after a
preliminary laboratory investigation or an economy study. Product Design - Introduction After a
firm has developed a list of ideas that appear to have product potential, it select those ideas that will
most likely lead to success. This selection procedure takes place at new-product conference which
are attended by the representatives of sales, product engineering, manufacturing engineering, and
marketing. Among the persons called upon to consider new ideas, some will be found to be always
resistant to change. Their immediate reactions are negative. They should be persuaded for an
adjustment to the new and different environment. Those participating in new product conferences
should be practical men of vision who are up to date in their respective fields and who have the
imagination and courage to work on an innovative idea that has promise.

Importance of Product Design:

 Product designing helps many industries and businesses to grow in the market. It plays a very
crucial part in everyone's life. It encourages creative thinking and innovation. New ideas
contribute significantly to products and change the way they look.
 Positive impact on society.
 People's perception changes the way they look at a product.
 It helps other industries to sell their product more easily.

 Need analysis

The first step of the engineering design process is to identify as clearly as possible what needs are to
be satisfied by a solution based on technology.

• A design project may originate out of a concern to protect the health and safety of the public or to
improve the quality of life for some people.

• An existing product or process may need to be redesigned in order to be made more effective or
profitable.

• A company may wish to establish a new product line for commercial benefit, but how well it meets
their customers’ needs will determine its success.
• Technological developments or scientific discoveries may create opportunities for new engineered
products

Problem Formulation

• It is important to recognize that a specific problem must be formulated if one is to develop a

specific solution.

• Ask if the real problem differs from the problem as initially presented. In what ways?

• In real-life engineering, you may be asked to solve incorrectly defined problems.

• Formulation of a problem statement is a most critical step in an engineering design project since it
will determine the direction in which the efforts proceeds.

Abstraction and Synthesis

• Abstraction provides us with a perspective of the building blocks that can be used to develop a set
of design solutions.

• The first step in abstraction is to break the problem into as many functional parts, sub problems, or
meaningful units as possible.

• Next, one should try to classify these functional aspects of the problem into more general
categories in accordance with their distinctive characteristics.

• Synthesis is then used to form whole solutions from these sets of building blocks or constituents
parts.

Analysis

• Compare and evaluate alternate designs.

• Eliminate alternatives that do not satisfy critical design goals.

• Construct prototypes of the most promising designs and test and evaluate.

• Select the best alternative from among those designs.

• Revise and refine this best design as appropriate.

Benefits of Need Analysis

1. Improved User Experience: By understanding user needs, designers can create more user-centered
designs.

2. Increased User Adoption: By addressing user needs, designers can increase user adoption and
engagement.

3. Reduced Costs: By identifying and addressing user needs early on, designers can reduce costs
associated with redesigns and rework.

4. Competitive Advantage: By understanding user needs better than competitors, designers can
create innovative solutions that differentiate their products or services.

considerations for standardization and creativity in design processes:

Standardization

Benefits

1. Efficiency: Standardization can streamline design processes, reducing time and costs.

2. Consistency: Standardization ensures consistency in design quality and performance.

3. Scalability: Standardization facilitates scalability, making it easier to produce large quantities.

4. Maintenance: Standardization simplifies maintenance and repair, as standardized parts and

processes are easier to manage.

Challenges

1. Innovation: Standardization can stifle innovation, as designers may feel constrained by established
processes.

2. Customization: Standardization can limit customization options, potentially reducing customer

satisfaction.

3. Complexity: Standardization can oversimplify complex design problems, leading to inadequate

solutions.
  Creativity in Design Processes

Benefits

1. Innovation: Creativity in design processes can lead to innovative solutions that differentiate
products.

2. Problem-Solving: Creativity enables designers to approach complex problems from unique angles.

3. Customer Satisfaction: Creative design solutions can lead to increased customer satisfaction and
loyalty.

4. Competitive Advantage: Creativity in design processes can provide a competitive advantage,

setting products apart from others.

Challenges

1. Uncertainty: Creativity can introduce uncertainty, making it difficult to predict design outcomes.

2. Risk: Creativity can increase risk, as untested design solutions may not meet performance or
quality expectations.

3. Time and Cost: Creativity can require additional time and resources, potentially increasing design
costs.

Balancing Standardization and Creativity

1. Hybrid Approach: Combine standardization with creative freedom, allowing designers to innovate
within established frameworks.

2. Design Guidelines: Establish design guidelines that provide a framework for creativity while
ensuring consistency and quality.

3. Innovation Time: Allocate specific time for designers to explore new ideas and concepts, separate
from standard design processes.

4. Collaboration: Foster collaboration between designers, engineers, and stakeholders to encourage

creative problem-solving while ensuring standardization and feasibility.

 Material Selection
The first step in tackling it is that of translation, examining the design requirements to identify the
constraints that they impose on material choice. The immensely wide choice is narrowed, first, by
screening-out the materials that cannot meet the constraints. Further narrowing is achieved by
ranking the candidates by their ability to maximize performance. Criteria for screening and ranking
are derived from the design requirements for a component by an analysis of function, constraints,
objectives, and free variables. Materials selection is important for engineering as it acts as the
foundation for every part of the design process, from which a final product’s capabilities are
determined. It influences how a product will function, its manufacture, lifecycle, and whether it can
be readily recycled.

The choice of material also determines factors such as thermal and electrical conductivity,
strength, density and how a product responds to environmental conditions. Different properties can
be gauged by measurements such as Young's modulus, which shows elasticity for tension or axial
compression. Selecting an unsuitable material can have negative consequences for the required
application and also health and safety. For example, insufficient yield strength could lead to a
structure failing while inadequate chemical or corrosion resistance could cause an object to fail
sooner than intended.

Material selection may require two or more materials to be considered together to determine how
they will react when used alongside each other. Carbon steel, for example, will suffer from galvanic
corrosion at a much faster rate if it is placed in contact with stainless steel in an electrolytic solution
than it would if used in isolation. Using the right materials can also impact cost, with some being
more expensive than others while sustainability is also a factor, with environmental issues related to
production, recycling and emissions to be considered. All of these considerations are important in
assessing the suitability of candidate materials.

Correct materials selection means that products have the optimum performance, longevity in
use and cost as well as meeting sustainability requirements.When deciding which material is best for
an engineering project, there are various criteria to take into consideration, including:

 Mechanical Properties: These properties include factors such as ductility, strength,

hardness, toughness and stiffness. They determine how the material will respond to issues
such as loads and stresses.
 Physical Properties: These properties include electrical resistance, density and thermal
conductivity. They show how the material will interact with the physical world.
 Chemical Properties: These properties demonstrate how a material will be affected by
matters like corrosion or reactivity.
 Cost: The cost of a material is also important in materials selection, with some applications
requiring and deserving higher-cost materials than others.
 Availability: Rarer materials may not only be more costly, but they can also be harder to
source.
 Sustainability: The environmental impact of a material is also an important consideration
and means answering questions around life expectancy and ease of recycling.

o Materials Selection Process

To make the materials selection process easier, a materials selection chart (also known as an Ashby
Chart) can be used. This offers a graphical representation of different materials and their properties
and allows for an impartial, systematic and speedy selection by comparing various materials based
on different criteria.

For example, for applications requiring lightweight, low density and high strength materials, like
those in the aerospace industry, you can search the relevant family of materials for the desirable
properties on the chart.

However, before a selection chart can be used it is important to understand the required properties
for the specific application. The complexity of this task depends upon how many different properties
are required from the material. An engineer needs to identify and list the requirements before they
can be matched to the available materials, while taking factors such as cost, safety and
environmental impact into consideration. The materials shortlist is then narrowed down to find the
most suitable materials, after which, samples can be tested to ensure they are suitable for the
required application.

The materials selection process can be broken down into stages, as follows:

 Define Requirements: The first step involves identifying the needs of the application –
including operating temperatures, pressure, corrosion, and loading.
 Identify Materials: List potential materials that meet the requirements, whether ceramics,
metals, polymers, or composite materials.
 Create Shortlist: Analyze the materials you have identified to create a shortlist by assessing
factors like cost and availability. This step can be made easier by using an Ashby Chart.
 Evaluation: The shortlisted materials can now undergo an in-depth evaluation. This can
include testing against the requirements set out in step one.
 Selection: The final step is to select your chosen material, which may include quality
assurance checks to be certain of the selection. The final selection is not actually the end of
the process as it is worth conducting ongoing monitoring and evaluation to ensure that your
chosen material is still the best for your given application. The requirements may change
with time or new and better materials may become available.

 Notches and stress concentration

Notches and geometric discontinuities in mechanical components can significantly influence their
strength and durability due to stress concentration. Understanding their effects and how to mitigate
them is crucial in mechanical and structural design.

Stress concentration occurs when there is a sudden change in a component’s shape, such as:

 Notches
 Holes
 Grooves
 Fillets
 Keyways
 Threaded sections
These discontinuities cause localized stress to be significantly higher than the average applied stress

Calculations on the strength of structures are primarily based on the theory of elasticity. If the
yield stress is exceeded plastic deformation occurs and the more complex theory of plasticity has to
be used. Fatigue, however, and also stress corrosion, are phenomena which usually occur at
relatively low stress levels, and elastic behavior may well be assumed to be applicable. The
macroscopic elastic behavior of an isotropic material is characterized by three elastic constants, the
elastic modulus or Young’s modulus (E), shear modulus (G) and Poisson’s ratio (ν). The well-
known relation between the constants is E = 2G(1 + ν). In a structure, geometrical notches such as
holes cannot be avoided. The notches are causing an inhomogeneous stress distribution, see Figure
3.1, with a stress concentration at the “root of the notch”. The (theoretical) stress concentration
factor, Kt , 6 is defined as the ratio between the peak stress at the root of the notch and the nominal
stress which would be present if a stress concentration did not occur.

The severity of the stress concentration is depending on the geometry of the notch configuration,
generally referred to as the shape of the notch. Designers should always try to reduce stress
concentrations as much as possible in order to avoid fatigue problems. The present chapter deals
with various aspects of stress concentrations and the effect of the geometry (the shape) on Kt . This
is one of the fundamental issues of designing a fatigue resistant structure, i.e. designing against
fatigue. Problems discussed in the present chapter cover definitions of stress concentration factors,
calculations and estimations of Kt-values, stress gradients, aspects related to size and shape effects,
superposition of notches and methods to determine Kt-values. Definition of Kt The strip with a
central hole shown in Figure is a prototype of a notched element. It is frequently used in fatigue
experiments to study notch effects on fatigue. If the strip is loaded by a homogeneous stress
distribution, the hole will cause an inhomogeneous stress distribution in the critical section.

Effects of Notches on Mechanical Behavior

A. Fatigue Failure

 Notches significantly reduce fatigue life because cyclic loading amplifies stress
concentration.
 Microcracks form at stress concentration points, leading to failure over time.
 Fatigue strength reduction factor KfK is used instead of KtKfor fatigue applications.

B. Fracture Mechanics

 Sharp notches increase fracture risk due to high local stresses.

 The presence of notches reduces the fracture toughness of materials.
 Brittle materials are more susceptible to notch effects than ductile materials.

Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

A. Use of Fillets and Rounded Corners

 Sharp corners should be avoided; use fillets instead.

 A larger radius reduces KtK_, lowering stress concentration.

B. Material Selection

 Use ductile materials that can absorb high local stresses without cracking.
 Composite materials can reduce stress concentration in lightweight structures.

C. Hole Reinforcement

 Use chamfered or countersunk holes to smooth stress transitions.

 Add reinforcement rings around holes in critical load-bearing areas.

D. Gradual Cross-Sectional Changes

 Avoid sudden thickness changes; use tapered transitions instead.

 Example: Shafts should have gentle tapers instead of abrupt diameter changes.

E. Surface Treatments

 Shot peening induces compressive surface stresses to counteract notch effects.

 Polishing removes machining marks that act as micro-notches.
5. Practical Applications in Engineering Design

1. Aerospace Structures – Smooth wing-fuselage transitions reduce stress concentration.

2. Automotive Components – Notch-free axle shafts and connecting rods extend fatigue life.
3. Machine Components – Bearings, gears, and crankshafts are designed with fillets to
minimize stress risers.

 Design for Safety and Reliability in Engineering Design

Safety and reliability are critical considerations in engineering design to ensure that products and
systems function as intended under expected conditions while minimizing risks of failure. This
involves a combination of robust design principles, material selection, failure analysis, and risk
management strategies.

1. Safety in Engineering Design

A. Principles of Safe Design

1. Fail-Safe Design – Components are designed to fail in a way that minimizes harm.
Examples:
o Fusible links in electrical circuits (burn out to prevent fire)
o Braking systems in cars that engage in case of hydraulic failure

2. Redundancy – Critical systems have backup components (e.g., aircraft have multiple
hydraulic systems).
3. Load and Stress Analysis – Ensure structures and machines can handle worst-case scenarios
with a safety factor (SF).
o SF=Failure / Load Actual

4. Ergonomics and Human Safety – Design for ease of use and minimize human error (e.g.,
safety guards on machines).
5. Use of Safety Standards and Regulations – Compliance with industry-specific regulations
(e.g., ISO, ASME, OSHA, IEC, etc.).

B. Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (HIRA)

1. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) – Identifies potential failure points and their
impact.
2. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) – Systematically analyzes root causes of failure.
3. Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) – Used in chemical and process industries.
2. Reliability in Engineering Design

Reliability is the ability of a system to perform its required function under specified conditions for a
defined period.

A. Key Reliability Metrics

 Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) – Measures expected uptime of a system.

 Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) – Time until first failure for non-repairable components.
 Failure Rate (λ) – Number of failures per unit time.

B. Design Strategies for Reliability

1. Material Selection and Testing – Use high-quality, durable materials.

2. Design Margin & Safety Factors – Over-design critical components.
3. Environmental Considerations – Design for extreme conditions (e.g., heat, vibration,
corrosion).
4. Robust Manufacturing Processes – Minimize defects in production.
5. Predictive Maintenance and Monitoring – Use sensors to detect early signs of failure.

3. Case Studies of Safety and Reliability in Engineering

 Aerospace – Redundant flight control systems in aircraft.

 Automotive – Airbags, ABS, and crash-resistant chassis design.
 Structural Engineering – Earthquake-resistant buildings with flexible joints.
 Medical Devices – Pacemakers with backup power supply.
 UNIT 2

PRODUCT DESIGN

 Product strategies

Product design strategy combines design thinking (an approach oriented on designing products that
solve users' problems) with business objectives and values.

It is a set of guidelines that help make thoughtful business moves for a successful final product that
resolves customers' issues, builds brand loyalty and drives revenues.

Need

Crafting a robust product design strategy is paramount for steering your product development
journey in the right direction. It serves as your compass, guiding every decision and ensuring you
remain aligned with your goals. Without a strategy in place, you risk meandering through the design
process, investing time and resources in features that offer little value to your customers.

Product strategy in engineering product design is all about defining a roadmap to create successful,
market-driven, and technically feasible products. It combines business goals, user needs, and
engineering constraints to ensure the product is valuable, viable, and feasible.

Here are some key product strategies in engineering product design:

1. Customer-Centric Design

 Focus on solving real problems for users.

 Use design thinking, user research, and feedback loops to improve the product.

 Example: Tesla focuses on user experience, including over-the-air updates to enhance car
features post-purchase.

2. Modular & Scalable Design

 Create products with interchangeable components to enable flexibility and upgrades.

  Helps with manufacturing efficiency and future improvements.

 Example: Apple’s M-series chips unify MacBook performance across different models.

3. Lean Engineering & Agile Development

 Use an iterative approach, testing prototypes quickly and refining based on feedback.

 Minimize wasted effort by focusing on Minimum Viable Product (MVP) before full-scale
production.

 Example: SpaceX’s rapid prototyping for Starship, where each test informs the next iteration.

4. Sustainability & Eco-Design

 Reduce environmental impact through material selection, energy efficiency, and

recyclability.

 Example: Patagonia's use of recycled polyester and lifetime product repair programs.

5. Cost Optimization without Compromising Quality

 Use Value Engineering (VE) to reduce costs while maintaining performance.

 Optimize for manufacturability (DFM – Design for Manufacturing) and ease of assembly
(DFA – Design for Assembly).

 Example: IKEA’s flat-pack furniture design reduces storage and shipping costs.

6. Differentiation Through Innovation

 Invest in cutting-edge technology and features to stand out.

 Example: Dyson's bladeless fan technology revolutionized traditional fan design.

7. Compliance & Regulatory Strategy

 Ensure adherence to industry standards, safety regulations, and certifications (e.g., ISO,
FDA, CE).

 Reduces liability risks and ensures global market compatibility.

 Example: Medical devices must meet FDA and ISO 13485 standards before entering the
market.

8. Digital & Smart Integration

  Embed IoT (Internet of Things), AI, and automation into products for enhanced
functionality.

 Example: Smart home products like Nest Thermostat use AI-driven energy savings.

9. Supply Chain & Manufacturing Strategy

 Secure reliable suppliers and optimize manufacturing locations for cost and logistics.

 Reduce dependency on single-source components to avoid bottlenecks.

 Example: Apple strategically diversifies suppliers across different regions to mitigate risk.

10. Lifecycle & End-of-Life Strategy

 Plan for product upgrades, maintenance, and disposal/recycling.

 Example: Fairphone’s modular design allows users to replace parts instead of discarding the
whole phone.

A successful engineering product strategy aligns technical feasibility with market demand,
ensuring the product is scalable, profitable, and sustainable. Would you like insights on a specific
industry or product.

 Product Value

Product value describes the benefits a customer gets from using your product. It’s a subjective
concept that varies from person to person and depends on their specific needs, preferences, and
expectations. In simple terms, it’s what makes your product desirable and worth purchasing.

To fully understand product value, you have to know the difference between comparative and
absolute value and the difference between real and perceived value.

 Comparative value is how well your product meets customer needs compared to its direct
competitors.
 Absolute value refers to how effectively it solves a customer’s problem or satisfies their
needs, regardless of competition.
 Perceived value is the customer’s subjective assessment of your product’s worth, based on
their perception of its features and benefits and your branding, marketing, and reputation.
 Real value is the objective worth of your product, taking into account factors like production
cost, materials, and functionality.

You’ll have to consider each measurement when positioning and differentiating your product. If
your product’s absolute value is high, but its comparative value is low, you’re in a competitive
market with similar products that offer a better value proposition. If your product’s comparative
value is high, you’re in a unique position with few direct competitors.
Although exact product value varies from one customer to the next, certain product benefits and use
cases generally increase the value of your product for most customers. There’s no way to make
everyone value your product the same, so your goal as a business should be to offer the value that
satisfies the majority of your target market at a price, they can agree is fair.

Value differs from product to product, industry to industry. There is no universal formula for
determining the exact value of a product. This is why most product teams spend time evaluating all
factors that impact how a customer perceives the worth of a product — from initial concept to well
after launch.

The work of documenting product value begins by mapping company, product, and customer
attributes to different types of value. Usually this happens as a follow-up to a broader business
strategy. Senior product leaders will distill this research into a product value proposition and product
value statement — both of which can be used as a north star for the product team during roadmap
planning and feature prioritization. Other functional groups such as marketing, sales, and support can
use a product value statement to inform messaging and customer-facing materials.

Product value refers to the perceived worth or benefits that a product offers to its users.
Understanding the different types of product value is essential for designing offerings that resonate
with customers. Here are the primary categories:

1. Functional Value: This pertains to the practical benefits a product provides, such as solving a
problem or fulfilling a specific need. For instance, a smartphone's ability to make calls, send
messages, and access the internet represents its functional value.
2. Monetary Value: This relates to the product's price relative to its perceived worth. A product
is considered to have high monetary value if customers believe its benefits justify the cost.
3. Social Value: This reflects the extent to which owning or using a product allows consumers
to connect with others or enhance their social status. For example, wearing designer clothing
can convey prestige and facilitate social connections.
4. Psychological Value: This involves the emotional satisfaction or personal expression derived
from a product. Products that align with a consumer's self-image or provide emotional
benefits, such as comfort or excitement, offer psychological value.

By recognizing and integrating these diverse types of value, businesses can create products that not
only meet functional requirements but also resonate on monetary, social, and psychological levels,
leading to a more compelling value proposition for their customers.

Explain the various steps involved in value analysis.

1. Identify the product First, the product should be identified for study.

2. Collect relevant information The next step is concerned with collecting all relevant information
regarding the identified product from the point of view of

(i) marketing and application,

(ii) engineering,
(iii) manufacturing and procurement, and

(iv) economics. Some of the information needed to be collected include: (a) Technical specification
with drawings (b) Production processes, machine layout and instruction sheet. (c) Time study details
and manufacturing capacity. (d) Complete cost data and market details. (e) Latest development in
related products.

3. Define the functions The value content of each function should be specified and the high-cost
areas have to be identified.

4. Create different alternatives Brain storming is the systematic and structural process of generating
all possible ideas on the basis of creative thinking of a group of people. These ideas may be
primarily concerned with diagnosing the causes of given problem and or ways of tackling it.

5. Critically evaluate the alternatives The ideas generated in the previous step are compared,
evaluated and critically assessed for their virtues, validity and feasibility as regards their financial
and technical requirements.

6. Develop the best alternative Using the detailed development plans that are made in the previous
step, the best alternative plan should be selected.

7. Implement the best alternative Then the prototype is finally implemented into operation and its
results should be recorded.

 Product Planning

Product planning (or product discovery) is the ongoing process of identifying and
articulating market requirements that define a product's feature set. It serves as the basis for decision-
making about price, distribution and promotion. Product planning is also the means by which
companies and businesses can respond to long-term challenges within the business
environment, often achieved by managing the product throughout its life cycle using various
marketing strategies, including product extensions or improvements,
increased distribution, price changes and promotions. It involves understanding the needs and wants
of core customer groups so products can target key customer desires and allows a firm to predict
how a product will be received within a market upon launch.

The product planning process-

Developing the product concept

In the product concept phase, managers generate ideas for new products by identifying certain
problems that consumers face or various customers needs. For example, a small computer retailer
may see the need to create a computer repair division for the products it sells. After idea conception,
managers may plan the dimensions and features of the product and develop a trial product.

Studying the market

The next step is engaging in a competitor analysis. Secondary research usually provides details on
key competitors and their market share, which is the percent of total sales that they hold in the
marketplace. The business can then determine places in which it has an advantage over the
competition to identify areas of opportunity.

Market research

Market research is one stage of product planning and is regarded as the way to accomplish the
activity though designing questions, preparing the samples, collecting data and analysing them. It
provides significant insight into customers wants, needs, buying habits and behaviours and is a key
tool used in the product planning process. For example, customer satisfaction information can be
obtained through surveys and market research. The process consists of 4 components: definition,
collection, analysis and interpretation.

Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Both qualitative and quantitative marketing research techniques can be used within marketing
research.[7] The aim of qualitative research is to gather an in-depth understanding of human
behavior and the reasons that govern such behaviour. The qualitative method investigates the why
and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are
more often used than large samples. Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or numerical data or computational
techniques.[9] The objective of quantitative research is to develop and
employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.

Market researchers use quantitative and qualitative research to gain better and more complete
perspectives about a market segment or hypothesis. Qualitative research involves consideration and
analysis that are non-numerical in nature, which includes questions of "how" and "what". Qualitative
research is suited to solve the problem areas of basic market exploratory studies, product
development and diagnostic studies. In market exploratory studies, the research findings can be used
to define consumer segmentations in relation to a product brand or understand the dimensions which
differentiate between brands. In new product development, product, packaging, positioning and
advertising information can be collected through researching to confirm a new product proposition.
In diagnostic studies, qualitative research is used to determine how the brand image has changed
since the start of an advertising campaign.

Research Methods

The methods of qualitative research can be departed into observation and focus groups. Recently,
observation is used in observation-based researches, in which people may not articulate correctly and
clearly of their thoughts. A particular example is the application in in-store shopping surveys, which
regularly allow customers to try the products and gather feedback. Focus group is a tool on the basis
of psychotherapy where it has found that if people are divided into small groups and asked to share
their opinions suggestions, and open up. Because there will generate a brainstorming effect in the
groups so that a comment from one person can stimulate another one's ideas. In general, there are
always need four groups to cover a single respondent type. The outcomes of group discussions rely
on the group leaders’ abilities of structuring the discussion, conducting the meeting and analysing
and understanding the results.

Quantitative research is about understanding aspects of a market or what kinds of customers make
up the market.It can be split into soft and hard parts. Soft parts refer to phenomena like customer
attitudes and hard part is market size, brand shares and so on. Quantitative researchers are different
from qualitative researchers, they pay more attention to asking 'What' questions. Quantitative
research often provides three aims: description, forecasting and decision-making. Quantitative
market research means getting relevant information or measures from each single customer or
shopper who are carrying out a census in the market. It is based on the strict sampling methods so
that its data or results have levels of accuracy and can be taken to represent and stand for the
population or to projecting.

If the survey results prove favourable, the company may decide to sell the new product on a small
scale or regional basis. During this time, the company will distribute the products in one or more
cities. The company will run advertisements and sales promotions for the product, tracking sales
results to determine the products potential success.

 Product design specification

Building the product design specification from the product concept includes both research and
design. Market research provides more details about the target market characteristics and size, the
methods of marketing that might be used and the position of the product as compared with the
competitors.

The product specification also referred to as a product design specification, product development
specification, or PDS, is a written document that describes your product and lists what you would
like your product to do and how you would like the user to interface with your product. While
writing all that down may seem tedious, it is the most important thing you can do in the early stages
of the product development process. This is because what is listed in the product spec guides your
entire scope of product development.

There are many different types of specification; product design, performance, marketing, technical
and maintenance. For example, technicians would refer to a maintenance specification for a wind
turbine to tell them when and how to lubricate parts, tighten bolts, apply paint, and replace rubber
fittings. Although specifications can be boring to read, they account for every detail affecting the
product. A product design specification (PDS) is a statement of the features that the finished product
must possess in order to satisfy the design brief. It is written by the designer and is based on all the
key research information gathered. The PDS should be unambiguously and list all the requirements
of the product including any numeric detail including tolerances. The client, who set the design brief,
should be fully consulted as their needs are of paramount importance. A product design specification
is normally structured using the relevant design aspects:

• Function • Ergonomics • Performance • Materials • Aesthetics • Manufacturing • Marketing

Several points could be made under each heading.
PRIMARY & SECONDARY FUNCTIONS In any specification there are always some aspects that
are more important than others. These needs can be divided into either Primary or Secondary
function. The primary functions are those that are vital for the product to do its job, whilst the
secondary functions are those which although important could be compromised for the benefit of the
primary functions. Dividing your specification up in this way helps you to prioritise, especially in
the early stages of a design, and allows you to focus on the important aspects of the product. For
example, the primary functions of a kettle could be listed as; boil 1.5 L of water and pour safely.
These functions will allow the designer to produce a range of sketch ideas without getting bogged
down with such things as a water level indicator, cordless feature, etc.

GENERATING IDEAS

When faced with a blank sheet of paper many people find it difficult to come up with new and
innovative ideas so a number of techniques have been developed to help provide a starting point.
The main aim of each of these techniques is to guide the designer away from conventional thinking
or existing solutions and help suggest new, original and creative ideas.

BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming is a group activity in which people focus their attention on a specific issue or problem
and generate a large number of ideas in a short space of time. One advantage of working in a group
is that others may see the problem from a different perspective and suggest a fresh approach. This in
turn stops the others from becoming too focused on a single train of thought.

The rules of brainstorming are:

• the problem must be defined in fairly simple terms to encourage a variety of solutions;

• no criticism of any suggestion is allowed - judgment should be kept until later;

• all ideas should be welcomed, however bizarre they may appear; • the emphasis should be on
producing a large number of ideas;

• building on others ideas should be welcomed. Insisting on these rules leads to a relaxed
environment where people feel uninhibited and open to free thought. The suggestions are recorded in
note or sketch form or a combination of both. Once the session is over however, it will then be
necessary to sift through all the ideas and select those which show potential for further development.

ANALOGY

Analogies are very good for discovering things you had not realised about the problem or product
and thus enable you to develop new solutions. Often an analogy will include the words "... is like ..."

The first step is to make up an analogy:

• What does the problem or product remind you of?

• What other areas of life/work experience similar situations? Analogy’s success depends upon your
ability to identify useful lines of thought.

For example, engineers faced a problem when designing a new aircraft carrier for the Sea Harrier
jets. The decks were too short for the planes to take off with a full load, unless the carrier steamed at
full speed into the wind. It was the analogy which likened this problem to water-ski jumping that
provided the breakthrough and led to the ramp take off being successfully developed.

One way to come up with a really good design is to have lots of ideas and then throw away all the
bad ones. Morphological analysis is a simple technique which can suggest thousands of possible
ideas. It is carried out by breaking the problem down into its main features. Each of these features is
written on the top of a separate card and then a variety of options are noted below. These lists are
laid sideby-side and moved up and down at random. Any interesting combinations are noted for
sketching later. For example, when creating seating for a country park

 Concept generation in product design

Concept generation is an innovative process; 'hence, organization should design structure and
systems to unleash the creative potential of the individuals in the organization: It is necessary to
understand that being creative and innovative means not just novelty but essentially the innovation
incorporating high degree of usefulness. We could find there are two kinds of creative profiles, one
set of people more towards artistic creativity and the other set is more of scientific creativity. In
product development context we need both of these creative capabilities within the organization.
Another important characteristic that organization needs to nurture is that individuals should not
only become innovators but also prolific. In the present context we shall look into the methods of
concept generation only.

There are two major sets of concept generation mechanisms; viz. problem-based ideation and
attribute-based ideation.

Problem Based Ideation

The important step in this approach is to understand the needs and problems of ` stakeholders. This
can be achieved by use of systematically analyzing the internal documents of the company,
interviews of the stakeholder, from group discussions of the stakeholders and other market research.
After identifying the problem, it has to be analyzed s and answers have to be found to solve the
problems. These answers would give rise to the new product concepts.

Problem Solving Methods

Once the problems are identified, we have to generate solutions. The problem solving can be
attempted by individuals or in a group. There is common understanding that group effort results in
more than individual creativity. Alex Osborn developed a methodology called brain storming, the
main idea behind brainstorming is that the first individual presents an idea, second one reacts to
these ideas, and third one continues with reacting to the earlier reaction. This process continues with
out evaluation for several cycles. The presentation-reaction sequence is powerful mechanism in
kindling creativity. This method has been accepted and used widely. However, in daily life this word
has been abused by using for any speculative and arbitrary reactions. Two important principles that
work behind brain storming are.

No evaluation during the idea generation:

The evaluation of ideas and reactions are deferred to the end. The participants are encouraged to
provide their ideas and reactions freely without inhibition. Evaluation would lead to criticism and
impairs the free flow of ideas.

Quantity of ideas would help in getting innovative solutions:

The second principle is that the innovative and break through ideas can be obtained by increasing the
quantity of idea during generation. The reason for the above is that the habitual thoughts dominate\
the structured and hierarchical thinking. The newer and "unconventional idea flows only later and. to
really obtain these ideas, the process has to be sustained for sufficiently longer time and increase the
number of ideas. With these two principles in mind Crawford (1997) suggested four thumb rules for
conducting brainstorming exercises.

1. Criticism of any form is ruled out, even very minute action like that of chuckles and raising
eyebrows have to be necessarily restrained.
2. Participants are encouraged to shed their inhibition and freewheeling; wild ideas are
welcomed. Build on quantity to get innovative and break through ideas.
3. Pace has to be maintained throughout the process by building on previous ideas.
4. However, achieving all these in practice is difficult, and the leader should try to guide the
group towards achieving large number of innovative ideas by more of persuasion than
confrontation.

Attribute Based Ideation

Analytical attribute methods capitalize on. the fact that any change in the product is brought about
by altering one or more current-product attributes. The method employs a forced change of all the
possible attributes of the product and attempts to discover a totally innovative product. Some of the
methods use the association of one attribute with others. Before getting on to the methods it is
important to understand the meaning of attributes. In fact products are really a bundle of attributes.
They can be classified in to three groups, namely features, functions, and benefits. Some examples
of these attributes are presented in the Table 12.3. However the classification is not sacrosanct, it is
mainly for convenience of presentation. There are several analytical attribute Methods for new
product concept generation: They are; relationships analysis, dimensional analysis, gap analysis,
analogy, benefit analysis.

Concept selection is a critical phase in product design, involving the evaluation and refinement of
generated ideas to identify the most promising solutions for development. This process ensures that
the final product aligns with customer needs, technical feasibility, and business objectives.

 Concept Selection Process:

Concept selection is a design activity to evaluate the design concepts with respect to the customer
requirements and other criteria developed during the design process. It includes comparing the
strengths and weakness of the design concepts to select one or more design concepts for more
improvement and analysis at the next phase of the design process.

The main challenge of the concept selection stage is to develop the criteria to evaluate the design
concepts accordingly. The criteria are strongly dependent on type of the project and customer
requirements. Some general guidelines to develop the criteria:

 Consider the customer requirements and needs as a base to define and develop the criteria.
 Consider the constraints and limitations of the company such as cost, in-house manufacturing
capabilities, liability, insurance and so on
 Investigate and benchmark the similar products of the competitors.

Steps

1. prepare the Selection Matrix: List the generated design concepts along the top row and the
selection criteria in the leftmost column of a matrix.
2. Choose a Benchmark (Datum): Select a reference concept—this could be an existing
product or a competitor's offering—to serve as a baseline for comparison.
3. Evaluate Concepts Against Criteria: Assess each concept relative to the benchmark for
each criterion, assigning ratings such as "+", "0", or "–" to indicate better, same, or worse
performance, respectively.
4. Combine and Refine Concepts: Identify strengths from various concepts that can be
integrated to enhance the overall design, leading to improved solutions.
5. Select the Most Promising Concept(s): Based on the evaluations, choose one or more
concepts for further development and testing.

Common Challenges in Concept Selection:

 Subjectivity in Evaluation: Decisions often rely on subjective judgments due to limited

quantitative data in early design stages.
 Balancing Stakeholder Interests: Aligning differing priorities and preferences among
stakeholders can complicate the selection process.
 Managing Uncertainties: Incomplete information about technical feasibility or market
acceptance can impact decision-making.

Best Practices for Effective Concept Selection:

 Use Structured Decision-Making Tools: Employ methods like the Pugh Concept Selection
to systematically compare alternatives.
 Engage Cross-Functional Teams: Involve diverse perspectives from engineering,
marketing, and other relevant departments to enrich evaluations.
 Iterate and Refine: View concept selection as an iterative process, refining ideas based on
feedback and new information to develop the best possible product.

 CONCEPT TESTING
Concept testing is a research method that involves asking customers questions about your concepts
and ideas for a product or service before actually launching it. Thus, you can gauge your customers’
acceptance and their willingness to buy and therefore make critical decisions before the launch.

Concept testing helps businesses purify their ideas, prioritize features, or decide whether to proceed
with a concept. It is crucial to reduce the risk of failure by ensuring that a product meets market
expectations before significant resources are invested.

Benefits of Concept Testing

It’s easy to assume that every new feature or product idea will succeed, but that’s rarely true. Only
customers can truly determine whether an idea will succeed or fail. This is why testing ideas and
concepts is crucial before launching to customers.

Concept testing provides valuable insights that help ensure a successful product launch. You can
gather in-depth feedback on various aspects of your idea, such as:

 Specific features
 Look and feel
 Pricing
 Other key elements

Testing helps validate every detail of the product testing before its launch.

Organizations and businesses use surveys to carry out concept testing making it a simple proposition
for brands of all sizes to utilize. In the following section, we will discuss the different methods of
concept testing.

Concept Testing Methods

Over the years, researchers have designed and applied many different concept testing methods.
These methods are categorized based on how the concepts are displayed. Each of these methods is
suitable for different types of research. Concept testing is easily achieved with the help of a research
platform. Here are the four primary methods of concept testing:

1. Comparison testing
2. Monadic testing
3. Sequential monadic testing
4. Proto-monadic testing

1. Comparison Testing

In comparison testing, two or more concepts are presented to the respondents. The respondents
compare these concepts by using rating or ranking questions or merely asking to select the best
concept displayed.

Comparison tests give clear and easily understandable results. It’s easy to determine which concept
is the winner. However, the results lack context. There is no way to tell why the respondents choose
one concept over others. It is essential to understand these details before successfully launching a
product.

2. Monadic Testing

The target audience is broken down into multiple groups in a monadic test. Each group gets shown
only one concept. These tests focus on analyzing a single concept in-depth. A monadic test survey is
usually short and highly targeted.

Since each group of respondents sees a single concept, it is possible to go in-depth without making
the survey lengthy. Researchers can ask follow-up questions about the various attributes of a
concept, such as what they liked about the concept, it’s look and feel, price point, etc. Though each
group of respondents sees different concepts in isolation, each concept’s follow-up questions will be
the same.

Monadic test surveys are short and give researchers the flexibility to ask multiple follow-up
questions. Thus the results provide more context around why a specific concept is better than others.

However, since the target audience is split into multiple groups, the sample size required to conduct
a monadic test is extensive. Since various concepts need testing, more significant is the sample size.
The increase in sample size considerably increases the cost of research.

3. Sequential Monadic Testing

Like the monadic test, in sequential monadic tests, the target audience is split into multiple groups.
However, instead of showing one concept in isolation, each group is presented with all the concepts.
The order of the concepts is randomized to avoid research bias. The respondents are asked the same
set of follow-up questions for each concept to get further insights.

Since each group of respondents sees all concepts, the target audience size required to perform a
sequential monadic test is relatively small. Multiple concepts can be tested in a single round.

Thus sequential monadic tests are more cost-effective and easy to field. This concept testing method
makes it ideal for research with budget constraints or when only a small target audience is available.

However, since all the concepts are presented to each group of respondents, the questionnaire’s
length is fairly long. This affects the completion rate and might introduce non-response bias.
Researchers can reduce the length of the questionnaire by limiting the number of questions.
However, this affects the depth of the collected insights.

Sequential monadic tests are also subject to other biases, such as interaction bias or order bias.

4. Protomonadic Testing

A protomonadic test includes a sequential monadic test followed by a comparison test. Here,
respondents first evaluate multiple concepts and then ask to choose the concept they prefer.
This design is useful to validate the results from the sequential monadic test. Researchers can verify
if the concept selected in the comparison test is compatible with the insights collected about each
idea.

This article explains how to choose the best-suited concept testing method for research.

Once you have finalized the method you will be using; you must design a survey for conducting
your test. Creating a survey and then effectively using a block randomizer offers the best results. The
following section will discuss the guidelines and best practices for creating an effective concept
testing survey.

Concept Testing Survey Design

Concept testing is achieved by using an online survey. The survey needs to be designed to analyze
respondents’ feelings about your concepts or ideas. The data collected using these surveys are then
used to determine what customers prefer or reject your idea. Here are a few tips to help you design a
helpful concept-testing survey.

1. Set an Objective for Your Survey

 Set an overall objective for your survey to guide question development.

 Focus on the actual motive behind the survey and what you aim to learn.
 Consider the specific details you want to uncover from your customers.
 Design questions that align with your objective and gather relevant insights.
 Collect meaningful information about your customers’ viewpoints.

2. Consistent Survey Design

It’s always a good practice to group related questions using survey blocks. Survey blocks help create
a well-ordered flow for your surveys and make it easier for the respondents to answer them.
Respondents can easily focus on one area of your concept without any distractions and provide
accurate and insightful feedback.

3. Likert Scales

Likert scales are rating scales with an odd-numbered series of answer choices, usually between five
to seven. You can include Likert scale questions in your survey to ask the respondents to rate their
opinion on a five- or seven-point scale from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”

Using Likert scale questions creates a consistent design for your survey, making it easier for
respondents to answer. Moreover, it’s easier to analyze the data collected using Likert scales.

4. Include Images

“A picture is worth a thousand words.” This idiom is true when you want respondents to provide
feedback about a visual concept. Logo testing is a good example where it makes sense to use images
instead of text. You can display different concepts of your logo design to your respondents and
select the one they like best. This negates any bias and provides easily digestible results.
5. Demographic Questions

It’s essential to include demographic questions in your survey to ensure that the respondents are part
of your target audience. You may receive negative feedback about your concept. However, it may
not be a reflection on the idea itself.

Rather the respondent may not be part of your customer base and isn’t interested in your product. It’s
essential to have demographic survey questions to ensure your concept will be successful with your
ideal customers.

Now that you know how to design a helpful concept testing survey, let’s look at some use cases
where concept testing is applicable.
 UNIT 3

DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING

 Forging design

Forging Drawings Good practice dictates that a forging drawing be prepared. Shapes and dimensions
of a part as it will be forged, before any machining is done, are shown on this drawing. Die design
and processing requirements are dictated by the way in which the part is drawn. Grain flow must be
aligned with the direction of highest principal stress. An experienced designer usually can visualize
metal flow from bar stock to final forging and the resulting grain-flow pattern. A forging
manufacturing engineer may have concerns, however, about potential laps and locally excessive die
wear and recommend changes to the forging drawing that may affect grain flow and the exact shape
of the final part. Flash is not customarily indicated on the forging drawing. For a number of reasons,
forging design should be developed in partnership between the forging user and the forging
producer. To neglect technical contributions that either partner can make is to risk a needless waste
of money and performance. It is often advisable to use metal-flow simulation software to study
blocker and finisher shapes for forgings. The simulation software shows how a metal bar changes
shape under the action of the forging press or hammer, predicts total forging loads and tooling
stresses, indicates where laps and other defects may form, and describes grain flow patterns. A three-
dimensional simulation takes a few hours if the part shape is available in a computer-aided design
(CAD) file. In contrast, the dies for a prototype.

forging take several weeks to machine and then may have to be modified after forging trials are
completed. More forgings are produced in two-part impression dies. The design of such forgings is
the topic of the following discussions.

Parting Line

As the die halves come together and confine metal in their cavities, their mating surfaces define a
parting line around the edges of the forging. The parting line is indicated on the forging drawing, and
determining its location is a critical step in forging design.If the parting line cannot lie in one plane,
it is desirable to preserve symmetry so as to prevent high side-thrust forces on the dies and the press.
Such forces can be countered, at extra die cost, if they are unavoidable. No portion of the parting line
should incline more than 75° from the principal parting plane, and much shallower angles are
desirable. An obvious essential is to select a parting line that will not entail any undercuts in either
die impression, since the forging must come out of the die after it is made. Because metal flow at the
parting line is outward into the flash gutter, grain flow in the forging has a corresponding pattern.
Depending on the way in which the part will be loaded, it may be desirable to change parting-line
location to control grain flow.

Draft

Die impressions are tapered so that forgings can be removed from their dies, and forged surfaces that
lie generally parallel to die motion are correspondingly tapered. This taper, called draft, also
promotes flow into relatively deep die cavities. Draft is specified as an angle with respect to the die-
motion axis. Conventionally, a standard draft angle will be specified for all affected surfaces on a
forging, which simplifies tooling for die sinking. It is also conventional to call for matching draft on
both die halves to make surfaces of unequal depth meet at the parting line.Low-draft and no-draft
forgings can be produced in some metals, such as aluminum and brass. This usually applies to
selected surfaces for which reduction or elimination of draft yields significant benefits.

Ribs, Bosses, Webs, and Recesses

Metal flow is relatively easy to manage when ribs and bosses are not too high and narrow, and it is
easiest when the web is relatively thick and uniform in thickness.Correspondingly, forging becomes
more difficult when large amounts of metal must be moved out of relatively thin webs into such
projections as deep ribs and high bosses. It is helpful to taper such webs toward the ribs and bosses.
Deep recesses also are easier to forge if they have spherical bottoms. When successive forging
operations are entailed, it can be advantageous to design for a fairly large punch-out hole in the thin-
web section. During finish forging, after the hole has been punched, flash flows inward at its edges
and helps to relieve excessive die forces. Surface textures, designs, and lettering on forged surfaces
are simply very small ribs and recesses. Locate these features on surfaces that are as nearly
perpendicular to die motion as possible, and locate them away from zones of wiping metal flow.

Radii

Forgings are designed with radii on all their external corners except at the parting line. It would
require a sharp internal angle in the die to form a sharp corner on the forging. This is a vulnerable
stress raiser; also, excessive pressure would be required to fill sharp corners. Both considerations
suggest generous corner radii. A common practice is to call for full radii at the edges of all ribs and
the same radius on each corner of a boss, web, or other shape. Fillet radii on a forging correspond to
corners in die impressions that metal must round to fill ribs and bosses. If metal flows past a sharp
corner and then doubles back, the forging may be flawed with a lap or cold shut, and the die may not
fill completely. This is more likely if the sharp die corner or sharp fillet in the forging is near the
edge of the piece.

Machining Allowance
Design features that promote easy forging add to the metal that must be machined away. Ample draft
angles, large radii, and generous tolerances can all have this effect. The machining allowance should
allow for the worst-case buildup of draft, radii, and all tolerances. If a part is forged with locating
pads on it for setup reference, calculate tolerance buildup from those points. See Table for typical
allowances for machined surfaces. Extra metal is sometimes provided to keep critical machined
surfaces away from the grain-flow pattern that occurs in the flash region near the parting line.
Machining allowances or finishing allowances are added to external dimensions.

TOLERANCES

The tolerances summarized below should be regarded as guidelines rather than as absolutes.
Adjustments can be made from these values when it is advisable for reasons of either manufacturing
economy or the component’s function. They apply to impression die forgings made in two-part die
sets. Aluminum forgings are commonly made to higher precision than listed here.

Die-Wear Tolerances

These tolerances apply only to dimensions generally parallel to the parting plane and perpendicular
to die motion. The corresponding variations parallel to die motion are included in die-closure
tolerances. Die-wear tolerances are plus variations of external dimensions and minus variations of
internal dimensions. They do not affect center-to-center dimensions. Thus they allow for erosion of
die metal and corresponding enlargement of the forged parts. While this tolerance is applied
routinely to all horizontal dimensions, as a practical matter,dies are subject to severe wear only in the
zones of harsh metal flow.

Die-Closure Tolerances

Dimensions parallel to die motion between opposite sides of a forging are affected by failure of the
two die halves to close precisely. The plus tolerances on such dimensions are shown in Table. There
is no minus tolerance in this category. Effects of die wear on these vertical dimensions are included
in the die-closure tolerances. An added tolerance of 0.3 percent applies to any projection that extends
more than 150 mm (6 in) from the parting plane.

Straightness Tolerances

For relatively long, thin parts, a typical straightness tolerance is 0.3 percent of length. When this
aspect of forging accuracy is critical, forged parts are often straightened in secondary cold
operations.

TABLE -1 Relative Forgeability

  Casting design

The making of a casting starts with the making of a pattern of the part to be cast. A refractory mold
is then made from this pattern. The pattern is removed from the mold for reuse, and the cavity left by
the pattern is filled with molten metal. When solid, the metal is the shape of the part. Figure
illustrates a mold as it would appear in a section view just after the metal has been poured. The
pattern is usually of wood for low production quantities, of aluminum for intermediate quantities,
and of hard ferrous metals for high production.

The “sand” refractory is usually a mixture of high purity: silica sand, bentonite clay, organic
additives, and water. This mixture is formed around the pattern by ramming and squeezing. Larger
molds are dried to some degree before pouring. After the refractory has been compacted or
chemically hardened, the mold is opened at a prearranged parting location and the pattern removed.
Often the mold halves are made separately by using part of the pattern for each half. Accurate,
strong sand components, called cores, are placed in the mold cavity to produce holes and internal
cavities in the casting. The two halves of the mold are placed together by using pins and bushings for
location. Metal is poured into the cavity through a previously prepared opening.

Complex castings can be made with casting processes using sand molds. Sand-mold casting has
particular advantages when complicated shapes and differing section sizes are encountered. Intricate
shapes with undercuts, reentrant angles, and complex contours, which would be very difficult to
machine, are practicable to cast by sand-mold methods. Another advantage of this method is that
through stress-analysis techniques the designer can reassess his or her product. Usually, metal can be
removed in areas of low stress and added in areas of high stress with relatively simple alterations to
the pattern. This is especially true when prototypes are being made and when wood patterns are
used. The sizes of sand castings vary from about 30 g (1 oz) to 200 tons or more. However,
foundries usually specialize in a particular size range. The section size depends to some extent on the
metal

Green-Sand Molding

In this process, a moist, plastic, rammable refractory mixture is used. After ramming, removal of the
pattern, and finishing, the mold is filled with metal while still in the damp, or green, state. This
process can utilize the simplest hand ramming for short runs but usually is mechanized for
intermediate quantities and is fully automatic for high production rates. Usually, the green-sand
process is the most economical and is applicable to all but the largest castings.

Dry-Sand Molding

This process is similar to green-sand molding except that the molds are baked or dried before
pouring. It is usually employed for multiton castings for which core and metal weights are great.

Cold-Cure Molding

This process uses chemical bonding of the sand by various organic and inorganic binders. These
binders are blended into the sand immediately before it is placed on the pattern. The speed of
chemical hardening can be regulated. The pattern is removed after hardening, and the mold is quite
true to the pattern. Cold-cure molding is used on all sizes but predominantly on larger castings.
Cores of all sizes, but especially large cores, also are made by this process. Costs and accuracy are
greater than for greensand molding.

Shell Molding

Shell molding is accomplished by coating a hot ferrous pattern with sand that has been mixed with a
thermosetting plastic. This plastic, when heated, bonds the particles of sand together. At a
predetermined time, any unhardened sand is removed, leaving a “shell” of bonded sand on the
pattern to be completely cured. After hardening, the shell, 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8 in) thick, is
ejected from the pattern. Two half-shell molds are mated together and glued. The mold can be filled
while resting either horizontally without backup material or vertically with a packed shot or sand
backing.

Lost-Foam (Evaporative Pattern) Molding

This is a process in which a polystyrene foam pattern, embedded in green sand, is not removed prior
to pouring of the molten metal. Instead, the pattern vaporizes from the heat of the molten metal. The
metal replaces the foam and takes the shape of the mold cavity. The pattern is coated with a
permeable refractory coating, which is dried before the pattern is placed in the mold flask. Loose
sand is then introduced to the flask. Vibration is normally used to compact the sand around the
pattern, and a vacuum may be applied to the mold during pouring. The foam pattern is made by
introducing partly expanded pellets of polystyrene material into a metal mold. Steam heat expands
and softens the pellets so that they fill the mold and take its shape. The mold is cooled, and the part
is ejected. Gating and multiple patterns may be glued together prior to the casting process. Lost-
foam molding has several advantages: (1) The process does not require two mold halves (there are
no parting-line problems), (2) the part can be more intricate and have a better surface finish than that
producible in the normal sand-molding process, (3) cores are not required, (4) cleaning is greatly
reduced, and (5) there is less labor content in the process.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Almost any shape that is designed can be cast. The problem is one of economics. A small
consideration in design may mean substantial differences in costs. Consult the foundry early in the
design stage when changes are easy. If the designer has several alternatives, discuss these. The
foundry representative usually can determine which is the cheapest for the foundry to produce. The
representative often is able to suggest changes that mean little in the design but which cut the casting
cost or increase reliability.
A factor affecting sand-mold and other castings is the natural shrinkage of cast metal as it cools and
solidifies. As well as reducing workpiece dimensions compared with the size of the mold cavity, it
can cause induced stresses and distortion. The amount of shrinkage varies with different metals, but
it is predictable and can be compensated for by making patterns slightly oversize. Table 5.1.2 lists
normal shrinkage for metals frequently sand-cast.

Parting Line

The parting line is a continuous line around a part that separates the two halves of the mold. It is
more economical and more accurate if the parting line can be on a flat plane, Contoured parting lines
usually result in fewer parts per mold, more costly patterns, less accuracy, more difficult
“debugging,” higher losses, and a need for more skilled molders, all of which increase costs. The
greater the degree of contouring, the greater are the problems and costs.

Draft

Each pattern must be easily removable from the weak, brittle molding sand. To facilitate removal,
the pattern must have some degree of taper, or draft. With little or nodraft, the pattern tends to tear
the mold rather than slipping out smoothly. (Castings having no draft or with undercuts can be made
only by incorporating in the mold separately made, added cores at additional expense. The amount
of draft needed is related to the method of molding and drawing of the pattern, the material the
pattern is made from, the degree of precision, and the surface smoothness of the pattern. In high-
production work, the draw mechanism, being quite accurate, allows the pattern to be drawn if it is of
high quality even if it has little draft. The less the draft, the higher is the quality of the pattern needed
and the greater is the cost. In high production, the higher pattern cost often can be easily saved in
metal.

 Design process for non-metallic parts

Nonmetals (non-metals) are those materials, both natural and synthetic, which do not contain metal.
They are produced easily, able to keep their chemical and physical composition during the
machining process, and do not require posttreatment finishes as metals. These materials have the
advantage of being significantly more inexpensive in both the short term and long term. There are a
wide variety of nonmetallic materials, including polymers, polymer composites, rubber, ceramics,
and others nonmetals are more lightweight and designed to have superior tribological properties than
metals; consequently, they require less maintenance over time. In harsh working conditions, many
nonmetals can endure exposure to extreme temperature, load, and speed. As clean and safe materials,
nonmetals are frequently used in the food industry. Nonmetals appear to cover a wide range of
tribological applications. For example, polymers and polymer composites have been used
successfully as bearings In particular, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bearings have been used
at cryogenic temperatures. PTFE and its composites have a very low coefficient of friction; hence,
they are preferred where dry sliding requires self-lubricating properties. Ceramic materials are used
in tribological applications, which require high resistance to abrasion, erosion, and corrosive wear at
elevated temperatures. Natural and synthetic rubbers have excellent thermo-mechanical, chemical,
and tribological behaviors in both dry and lubricated conditions further to their low noise. Therefore,
they are widely used as belts, rollers, and tyers. Single crystals diamonds are the best-known stones
used for high wear, corrosion, and oxidation resistance even at extremely elevated temperatures.
During sliding, diamonds show a low tendency toward adhesion due to their extreme hardness.

Molding compounds of thermosetting materials, or thermosets, when subjected to heat and pressure
within the confines of a mold, cure or set into an infusible mass. An irreversible chemical change,
involving the cross-linking of molecules of the material, takes place, and a solid part is formed.

Design Considerations during Design of Non-metallic Parts

Understanding Non-Metallic Materials:

 Types:

Non-metallic material

Non-metallic materials encompass a wide range, including polymers (plastics, rubbers), ceramics,
composites (like fiber-reinforced materials), and natural materials (wood, glass).

 Properties:
Non-metallic materials offer advantages like low density, high strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to
corrosion, and good insulation properties.

 Applications:

They are used in various industries, including construction, automotive, aerospace, electronics, and
consumer goods.

When designing non-metallic parts (Plastics, Rubber, Ceramics, Wood, and Glass), several key
factors must be considered to ensure functionality, durability, manufacturability, and cost-
effectiveness. Below are the essential design considerations:

1. Material-Specific Considerations

Each non-metallic material has unique properties that influence design decisions.

Plastics

o Flexibility & Strength: Avoid sharp corners to reduce stress concentration.

o Thermal Expansion: Allow for dimensional changes due to temperature variations.
o Creep & Fatigue Resistance: Consider long-term deformation under load.
o Chemical Resistance: Ensure compatibility with the intended environment.
o Manufacturing Constraints: Design for injection moulding, thermoforming, etc.

Rubber & Elastomers

o Elasticity & Compression Set: Design for repeated deformation and recovery.
o Aging & Wear Resistance: Consider UV, ozone, and chemical degradation.
o Hardness & Damping Properties: Choose the right durometer for shock absorption.
o Moulding Considerations: Optimize for compression or injection molding.

Ceramics

o Brittleness: Avoid stress concentrations and design for impact resistance.

o Thermal Expansion & Shock Resistance: Ensure compatibility with operating
temperatures.
o Wall Thickness Uniformity: Minimize warping during sintering and cooling.
o Surface Finish & Porosity: Control roughness and density for required properties.

Wood

o Grain Direction: Align with load-bearing direction to enhance strength.

o Moisture Sensitivity: Consider expansion and contraction due to humidity.
o Joinery & Assembly: Design for mechanical fastening, adhesives, or laminates.
o Surface Treatment: Use coatings or finishes to prevent wear and decay.

Glass
 o Brittleness & Impact Resistance: Avoid stress points and design for lamination or
tempering.
o Transparency & Optical Clarity: Minimize surface defects and distortions.
o Thermal Expansion & Annealing: Reduce internal stresses after manufacturing.
o Joining Methods: Account for adhesives, fasteners, or bonding techniques.

2. Mechanical Design Considerations

Stress & Load Distribution

 Use fillets and radii instead of sharp corners to reduce stress concentrations.
 For rubber and plastic parts, avoid excessive loads that cause creep deformation.
 Ceramic and glass parts should avoid bending or impact-prone areas.

Wall Thickness & Uniformity

 Plastics: Maintain uniform wall thickness for proper flow during molding.
 Rubber: Thicker sections may lead to voids or incomplete curing.
 Ceramics & Glass: Avoid abrupt thickness changes to prevent cracking.

Ribs & Reinforcements

 Use ribs instead of increasing wall thickness for strength.

 Consider honeycomb structures for lightweight and rigid designs.
 Elastomers and rubber parts should have optimized thickness to prevent excessive
flexibility.

Assembly & Tolerance Design

 Design with snap-fit joints for plastics to avoid fasteners.

 Use interference fits or adhesives for glass and ceramics.
 Consider wood expansion/contraction tolerances in joinery.
 Rubber parts should allow for compression tolerances in seals and gaskets.

3. Thermal & Environmental Considerations

Temperature Effects

 Plastics soften or degrade at high temperatures; consider high-temp polymers.

 Rubber may harden in cold or degrade with excessive heat.
 Ceramics & glass can handle high temperatures but may crack due to rapid temperature
changes.
 Wood expands/contracts with temperature and humidity changes.
Chemical Resistance

 Ensure compatibility with oils, solvents, and chemicals for long-term durability.
 Plastics: Some materials like PEEK or PTFE offer excellent resistance.
 Rubbers:EPDM and Viton are good for harsh chemical environments.
 Ceramics & glass: Highly resistant but require proper sealing.

UV & Weathering Resistance

 Plastics and rubber degrade under UV exposure; use UV stabilizers or coatings.

 Wood requires proper sealing or treatment to avoid rot.
 Glass and ceramics are naturally resistant but may need coatings for added protection.

4. Manufacturing Considerations

Moldability & Manufacturability

 Plastics: Avoid deep undercuts for easy demolding.

 Rubber: Ensure venting in molds to prevent air pockets.
 Ceramics & glass: Design for shrinkage during sintering or annealing.
 Wood: Consider grain structure for machining stability.

Joining & Assembly Techniques

Material Common Joining Methods

Plastics Snap-fits, screws, welding, adhesives
Rubber Over-moulding, bonding, mechanical fasteners
Ceramics Epoxy bonding, mechanical fasteners
Wood Nails, screws, dowels, adhesives
Glass Adhesives, laminating, mechanical clips

Post-Processing & Surface Finish

 Plastics: Painting, plating, polishing, or texture molding.

 Rubber: Surface texturing or coating for wear resistance.
 Ceramics: Glazing or polishing for durability.
 Wood: Sanding, staining, varnishing, or waterproofing.
 Glass: Etching, frosting, or anti-glare coatings.

Moulding Process

Plastic Moulding is the process of pouring liquid plastic into a mould so that after a specific time, it
solidifies in accordance with the provided design shape or customized shape. There are multiple
types of moulding processes like extrusion moulding, blow moulding, injection moulding, rotational
moulding and compression moulding.
  Extrusion moulding: In extrusion moulding, hot melted plastic is extruded and pressed
through compressed air to get the desired shape. When using this process, the product will
continuously have the same shape along the length.
 Injection moulding: This type of moulding is widely used in the industry. In this process,
melted plastic is injected into a designed mould by applying high pressure. Injection
moulding is often used for mass production with high levels of accuracy.
 Blow moulding: With blow moulding, the accuracy level of the finished component is less
and thin walled. In this process, air pressure is applied inside the mould to achieve the
desired shape

5. Sustainability & Cost Efficiency

Material Selection for Sustainability

 Use recyclable or biodegradable plastics (e.g., PLA, biopolymers).

 Recycled rubber for sustainable applications.
 Sustainable wood sourcing (FSC-certified materials).
 Glass is 100% recyclable but energy-intensive to produce.

Design for Minimal Waste & Cost Reduction

 Optimize material used to reduce scrap and production waste.

 Design for reusable or modular components.
 Minimize energy-intensive processes, especially for ceramics and glass.
 Select cost-effective manufacturing techniques based on volume.

 Material selection in machine design.

Material selection is a crucial step in machine design, as it directly impacts the performance,
durability, and manufacturability of machine components. The right material ensures that the
machine functions effectively under expected loads, environmental conditions, and operating
stresses.

The proper selection of the material for a particular job, e.g., a particular component of a machine or
structure. An engineer must be in a position to choose the optimum combination of properties in a
material at the lowest possible cost without compromising the quality.

Factors affecting the selection of materials:

(i) Component shape:

The shape and size of a component has great effect on the choice of the processing unit which
ultimately effects the choice of the material. To make it more clear, we consider an example, let the
best possible production method is selected, under given conditions, it is die casting, obviously, now
the choice of the material becomes limited, i.e. one can only choose materials with lower melting
points, e.g. aluminium, zinc, magnesium and thermoplastics.

(ii) Dimensional tolerance:

There are some materials which can be finished to close tolerance while others cannot. Obviously,
the required dimensional tolerance for finished components will, influence the choice of materials.

(iii) Mechanical properties:

Strength – Ability to withstand forces without failure.

Hardness – Resistance to wear, abrasion, and deformation.
Toughness – Resistance to impact and sudden loads.
Ductility & Malleability – Determines the ability to deform without breaking.
Fatigue Strength – Resistance to cyclic loading over time.
Creep Resistance – Resistance to slow deformation under sustained loads.

(iv) Fabrication (Manufacturing) requirements:

Method of processing of the material also affects the properties of a component, e.g., forged
components can be stronger than the casted components. Different types of working processes may
also give different types of fibre structure. However, investment casting can provide precise
dimensions at low cost in comparison to machine operations.

(v) Thermal Properties

Melting Point – Determines usability at high temperatures.

Thermal Conductivity – Important for heat dissipation in machine parts.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion – Affects dimensional stability in varying temperatures.

(vi) Service requirements:

Service requirements are : dimensional stability, strength, toughness, heat resistance, corrosion
resistance, fatigue and creep resistance, electrical and thermal conductivity etc.

(vi) Cost :

(A) Cost of the material: In most of the cases, the cost of raw material accounts about 50 % of the
finished cost. Obviously, the cost of the material is a major factor which influences the choice of the
material or process. We must note that the use of cheaper material will not always reduce the final
cost of the component or product. Use of cheaper material may be associated with higher processing
cost due to large number of operations to be performed and also more scrap. We can easily see that
this sometimes makes the overall cost more than that of expensive raw material in combination with
low processing cost due to lesser number of operations and lesser scrap. The type of material affects
the detailed aspect of design and hence the choice of material as well as the process is selected at the
early design state e.g. whether the material is to be joined by spot welding, screws or rivetes, must
be decided at the design state.

(B) Cost of processing: In most of the industries, the processing cost (labour cost) and other costs
such as overhead costs account for about 50% of the production cost. Overhead cost in automatic
industries is much more than the other costs. If one can somehow reduce all such costs, the total
production cost will automatically reduce.

(vii) Availability of the material:

We may find that sometimes the availability of the material becomes a governing factor. When the
desired material supply is limited, then a costly material which is available in ample quantity may be
chosen.

Procedure for materials selection: The selection of an appropriate material and its subsequent
conversion into a useful product with desired shape and properties can be a rather complex process.
Nearly every engineered item goes through a sequence of activities that includes:

design - material selection - process selection - production - evaluation - and possible redesign
or modification

2. Common Materials Used in Machine Design

A. Ferrous Metals (Iron-Based Alloys)

 UNIT 4

FAILURE THEORIES

 Static failure theories

Static failure theories (also called failure criteria) are used in engineering mechanics and materials
science to predict the failure of materials under complex states of stress, especially in static (non-
changing or slowly changing) loading conditions.

Static failure theories

 Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

 Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s theory)
 Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky’s theory)
 Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
 Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory).
 1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine’s theory):

o The theory states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches the yield or ultimate Strength of
the material.
o If σ1, σ2 and σ3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the component and σ1 > σ2 >
σ3. then according to this theory, the failure occurs whenever…… σ1 =Syt or σ1 =Sut whichever is
applicable.

2. Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s theory)

The theory states that the failure of a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the
maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when yielding starts.
 3. Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky’s theory)

It states that yielding of a ductile material begins when the distortion energy per unit volume in a
complex stress state equals the distortion energy per unit volume at yield in a simple uniaxial tensile
test. The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per
unit volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple
tension or compression of the same material.

 Materials don’t fail just because of pressure (hydrostatic stress).

 They fail when the shape (distortion) of the material is changed too much due to shear.

 This theory asserts that the total strain energy is composed of two parts; the strain energy
required for hydrostatic strain and the strain energy required for distortion. In this theory, it is
assumed that yielding will begin when the distortion component is equal to the uniaxial yield
strength,
Fy. Where σ1 > σ2 > σ3, yielding will occur
When,
½ (σ1 – σ2)2 + (σ2 – σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2 = Fy2
 This theory is illustrated graphically for the four states of biaxial stress shown in Figure 1-3.
This theory correlates even better with ductile test specimens than the maximum shear
stress theory.


 Figure 1-3. Graph of distortion energy theory.

 In ductile materials, failure doesn't happen because of uniform pressure (volume change),
but because of shape distortion.
 So we focus on distortion energy to predict failure more accurately.

1. Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint-Venant)

The theory is based on the assumption that inelastic behavior or failure is governed by a specified
maximum normal strain. Failure will occur at a particular part in a body subjected to an arbitrary
state of strain when the normal strain reaches a limiting level.
2. Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory).

According to this theory, failure occurs when total strain energy per volume is equal to strain energy
per volume at yield point in simple tension.
Condition for safe design,
Total Strain Energy per unit volume ≤ Strain energy per unit volume at yield point under tension
test.

 Modified Mohr’s theory

o Mohr-Coulomb (M-C) criterion is widely used for isotropic brittle materials, although it has
some disadvantages which limit its wider application.
o One important disadvantage of this theory is that it ignores the effect of the intermediate
principal stress, although it has an important influence on materials behavior. Therefore, Mohr-
Coulomb theory is actually used only for materials in biaxial state of stress. A modified form
of Mohr's criterion has been suggested, in order to overcome this limitation.
o On the basis of two new hypotheses, a real triaxial state of stress is replaced by a virtual
biaxial state of stress.
o The above mentioned stress states are considered to be equivalent for a material when the
failure is imminent in both cases. Both Mohr's theory and the concept of equivalence of stress
states are combined in order to obtain the virtual biaxial state of stress, which is determined
using all three principal stresses. The modified Mohr's theory can be used only for triaxial state
of stress. For biaxial and uniaxial state of stress it is reduced to the classical one.
o The proposed hypotheses have an important advantage because does not require additional
material coefficients. The calculated values using the virtual biaxial state of stress and the linear
M-C criterion are in good agreement with experimental data for grey cast iron. The article also
presents a compact statistical analysis for both stresses and errors, in order to objectively assess
the effectiveness of the formulated hypotheses.

Assumptions:
 1. Failure occurs when the Mohr's Circle touches a predefined failure envelope.
2. The material has different strengths in tension and compression.
3. Failure depends on the maximum normal stresses (principal stresses), not shear.

Failure Criterion:

Let:

 σ1 = Maximum principal stress

 σ3 = Minimum principal stress
 σt= Ultimate tensile strength of the material
 σc = Ultimate compressive strength of the material

Modified Mohr’s failure criterion is expressed as:

Failure occurs when the Mohr’s circle is tangent to the failure envelope defined by:
Failure occurs when the Mohr's circle is tangent to the failure envelope defined by:
(σ1/σt)2+(σ3/σc)2=1

For biaxial stress conditions, the criterion is evaluated based on σ1& σ3only.

 Fracture mechanics theory

The processes of material manufacture, processing, machining, and forming may introduce flaws in
a finished mechanical component. Arising from the manufacturing process, interior and surface
flaws are found in all metal structures. Not all such flaws are unstable under service conditions.
Fracture mechanics is the analysis of flaws to discover those that are safe (that is, do not grow) and
those that are liable to propagate as cracks and so cause failure of the flawed structure. Despite these
inherent flaws, it is possible to achieve through damage tolerance analysis the safe operation of a
structure.

Fracture mechanics is a methodology that is used to predict and diagnose failure of a part with an
existing crack or flaw. The presence of a crack in a part magnifies the stress in the vicinity of the
crack and may result in failure prior to that predicted using traditional strength-of-materials methods.

The traditional approach to the design and analysis of a part is to use strength-of-materials concepts.
In this case, the stresses due to applied loading are calculated. Failure is determined to occur once
the applied stress exceeds the material's strength (either yield strength or ultimate strength,
depending on the criteria for failure).

In fracture mechanics, a stress intensity factor is calculated as a function of applied stress, crack size,
and part geometry. Failure occurs once the stress intensity factor exceeds the material's fracture
toughness. At this point the crack will grow in a rapid and unstable manner until fracture.

Fracture mechanics is important to consider for several important reasons:

  Cracks and crack-like flaws occur much more frequently than might be expected. Cracks can
either pre-exist in a part, or they can develop due to high stress or fatigue.
 Typically, as the strength of a material increases, fracture toughness decreases. The intuition
of many engineers to prefer higher strength materials can lead them down a dangerous path.
 Ignoring fracture mechanics can lead to failure of parts at loads below what is expected using
a strength-of-materials approach.
 A failure due to brittle fracture is rapid and catastrophic and provides little warning.

Stress Concentrations around Cracks

Cracks act as stress risers and cause the stress in the part to spike near the tip of the crack. As a
simple example, consider the case of an elliptical crack in the center of an infinite plate:

The theoretical value of stress at the tip of the ellipse is given by

Where σ is the nominal stress and ρ is the radius of curvature of the ellipse, ρ = b2/a.

As the radius of the crack tip approaches zero, the theoretical stress approaches infinity. This infinite
stress is known as a stress singularity and is not physically possible. Instead, the stress distributes
over the surrounding material, resulting in plastic deformation in the material at some distance from
the crack tip. This region of plastic deformation is called the plastic zone and is discussed in a later
section. The plastic deformation causes blunting of the crack tip which increases the radius of
curvature and brings the stresses back to finite levels.

Because of the stress singularity issues that arise when using the stress concentration approach, and
because of the plastic zone that develops around the crack tip which renders the stress concentration
approach invalid, other methods have been developed for characterizing the stresses near the tip of
the crack. The most prevalent method in use today is to calculate a stress intensity factor, as
discussed in a later section.

Stress Intensity Factor

The stress intensity factor is a useful concept for characterizing the stress field near the crack tip.
For Mode I loading, the linear-elastic stresses in the direction of applied loading near an ideally
sharp crack tip can be calculated as a function of the location with respect to the crack tip expressed
in polar coordinates:

A term K, called the stress intensity factor, can be defined in the form

Where the units are either ksi√ in or MPa√ m .

The stress intensity factor for a Mode I crack is written as K I. (From this point forward, it is assumed
that all stress intensity factors are Mode I for reasons discussed previously, so the stress intensity
will be denoted simply as K. Using the equation for the stress intensity factor.

It is important to note that because equations describing the linear-elastic stress field were used to
develop the stress intensity factor relationship above, the concept of the stress intensity factor is only
valid if the region of plastic deformation near the crack tip is small.

Stress Intensity Factor Solutions

The difficult part of calculating the stress intensity factor for a specific situation is finding the
appropriate value of the dimensionless geometry factor, Y. This geometry factor is dependent on the
geometry of the crack, the geometry of the part, and the loading configuration. A classic case is plate
with a crack through the center, as shown below:

The stress intensity factor for a specific situation can be found through numerical methods such as
Finite Element Analysis (FEA). However, solutions for many cases can be found in the literature.

Superposition for Combined Loading

Because the concept of the stress intensity factor assumes linear elastic material behavior, the stress
intensity factor solutions can be combined by superposition to find solutions to more complex
problems. For example, the stress intensity factor solution for a single edge cracked plate in tension
can be combined with the solution for a single edge cracked plate in bending, as shown in the figure
below.

 Fatigue mechanisms
Fatigue of a material is defined as a progressive structural damage when the material is subjected
to cyclic or fluctuating loads. In fatigue damage, crack initiation, crack growth, and propagation
phenomena occur, which ultimately lead to complete failure of that material. Fatigue life of a
composite material is the number of loading cycles (stress) that it sustains before failure and must be
calculated prior to its use in structural applications. The microstructure, interaction between matrix
and reinforcing material, size, shape, volume fraction, and distribution of reinforcement and
processing route affect the fatigue behavior of a composite.

Fatigue is a degradation of mechanical properties leading to failure of a material or a component

under cyclic loading. (This definition excludes the so-called phenomenon of static fatigue, which is
sometimes used to describe stress corrosion cracking in glasses and ceramics in the presence of
moisture). In general, fatigue is a problem that affects any structural component or part that moves.
Aircraft (principally the wings) in the air, nuclear reactors and turbines under cyclic temperature
conditions (i.e., cyclic thermal stresses) are examples in which the fatigue behavior of a material
assumes a singular importance. It is estimated that 90% of service failures of metallic components
that undergo movement of one form or another can be attributed to fatigue. Often, a fatigue fracture
surface will show some easily identifiable macroscopic features, such as beach markings. The main
features of this kind of failure are:

a) a fatigue crack initiation site, generally at the surface;

b) a fatigue crack propagation region showing beach markings;
c) a fast-fracture region where the crack length exceeds a critical length.
• Typically, the failure under cyclic loading occurs at much lower stress levels than the strength
under monotonic loading with little or no warning .

Three basic factors are necessary to cause fatigue failure: - max. Tensile stress of sufficiently
high value; - large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress; - sufficiently large number of
cycles of the applied stress. In addition: stress concentration, corrosion, temperature, metallurgical
structure, residual stresses, and other variable tend to alter the conditions for fatigue. The study of
cyclic behavior of materials can divided into three classes:

1. Stress-life approach: It is useful when stresses and strains are mostly elastic. The main
drawback of this approach is that we are unable to distinguish between the initiation and propagation
phases of fatigue life.
2. Strain-life approach: The strain-life approach is useful when there is a significant amount of
plastic strain.
3. Fracture mechanics approach: The cyclic stress intensity factor is used as the crack driver to
estimate the life for propagating a crack from an initial size to larger size or to the critical size
corresponding to failure.

EFFECT OF STRESS CONCENTRATION ON FATIGUE :

Fatigue strength is reduced by stress raisers: - notch or hole, fillets, keyways, screw threads, etc
- surface roughness
- metallurgical (porosity, inclusions, local overheating, ….).
 The ration of maximum stress to normal stress is the theoretical stress concentration factor
Kt. σmax = Kt * σmin
Values for Kt may be determined basing on the theory of elasticity or may be obtained
experimentally.
Under static load (Kt = 1) for ductile materials and (Kt > 1) for brittle materials.
Under cyclic loading, the effect of stress concentration is of concern for brittle and ductile
materials.

The effect of the notch on the fatigue strength depends also on the nature of the materials. The
more ductile the material, the less notch- sensitive it is. Brittle materials are more notch-sensitive.
Since ductility and brittleness are roughly related to strength and hardness, low strength and soft
materials tend to be less notch sensitive than high strength and hard materials.

Size Effect:
Changing the size of a fatigue specimen usually results in a variation in two factor . First,
increasing the diameter increases the volume or surface area of the specimen. The change in amount
of surface is of significance. since fatigue failures usually start at the surface. Second, for plain or
notched specimens loaded in bending or torsion, an increase in diameter usually decreases the stress
gradient across the diameter and increases the volume of material which is highly stressed.

Surface Effects:
Practically all fatigue failures start at the surface. For many common types of loading, like
bending and torsion, the maximum stress a cures at the surface so that it is logical that failure should
start there. However, in axial loading the fatigue failure nearly always begins at the surface. There is
ample evidence that fatigue properties are very sensitive to surface condition. The factors which
affect the surface of fatigue specimen can be divided roughly into three categories: - surface
roughness at the surface. - Changes in the fatigue strength of the surface metal. - Changes in the
residual stress condition of the surface. In addition, the surface is subjected to oxidation and
corrosion.

Effect of Metallurgical Variables on Fatigue:

The fatigue properties of metals are quite structure sensitive. - There is good evidence that high
fatigue resistance can be achieved by homogenizing slip deformation so that local concentrations of
plastic deformation are avoided. This is in agreement with the observation that fatigue strength is
directly proportional to the difficulty of dislocation cross slip. Materials with high stacking- fault
energy permit dislocations to cross slip easily around obstacles, which promotes slip-band formation
and large plastic zones at the tips of cracks. Both of these phenomena promote the initiation and
propagation of fatigue cracks. - The dependence of fatigue life on grain size varies also depending
on the deformation mode. Grain size has its greatest effect on fatigue life in the low-stress, high-
cycle regime in which stage I cracking predominates. In high stacking-fault- energy materials (such
as aluminum and copper) cell structures develop readily and these control the stage I crack
propagation. - Second-phase particles - Micro structural orientation
  Fatigue failure models

Fatigue failure models are used to predict how and when a material will fail under cyclic loading.
These models fall into two broad categories: crack initiation models and crack propagation models.
Here's a summary of the most common ones:

Fatigue Failure Stages:

 Crack Initiation: The process where microscopic cracks begin to form within the material due to
repeated stress.
 Crack Propagation: The cracks grow in size and length as the cyclic loading continues.
 Final Fracture: The material ultimately breaks apart when a critical crack size is reached, leading to
a catastrophic failure.

1. Stress-Life (S–N) Approach

Best for: High-cycle fatigue (HCF), where failure occurs after many cycles and mostly elastic
deformation.

 Based on empirical S–N curves: Stress amplitude (S) vs. number of cycles to failure (N).
 Endurance limit: Some materials (e.g., steels) exhibit a threshold stress below which failure
won't occur.
 Basquin's Equation:

σa = σf′(2Nf)b

where,

1. σa- stress amplitude

2. σf- fatigue strength coefficient
3. Nf: number of cycles to failure
4. b: fatigue strength exponent.

2. Strain-Life (ε–N) Approach

Best for: Low-cycle fatigue (LCF), where plastic deformation occurs.

 Accounts for both elastic and plastic strains.

 Coffin-Manson Relationship:

εa=σf′/E(2Nf)b+εf′(2Nf)c

Where,
 1. εa - strain amplitude
2. σf′- fatigue strength coefficient
3. εf ′- fatigue ductility coefficient
4. E- Young’s modulus
5. b,c - fatigue exponents

3. Fracture Mechanics Approach

Best for: Cases with pre-existing flaws or cracks.

 Focuses on crack growth under cyclic loading.

 Paris’ Law:

1. da/dN=C(ΔK)m
2. a: crack length
3. ΔK: range of stress intensity factor
4. C,m: material constants

 Can be extended to account for:

o Thresholds (ΔKth )
o Fast fracture when K→KIC (fracture toughness)

4. Damage Accumulation Models

Best for: Variable amplitude loading (real-world loading conditions).

 Miner’s Rule (Linear Damage Rule):

D=∑ni/Ni

Where,

1. ni - number of applied cycles at a given stress

2. Ni- number of cycles to failure at that stress
3. Failure predicted when D=1

 Doesn’t account for load sequence effects (e.g., overloads).

5. Energy-Based Models

 Fatigue failure is assumed to be related to energy dissipation or accumulation.

 Often used for complex loading or advanced materials.
 Example: Total energy per cycle is used as a damage parameter.

 Design for Fatigue Strength and Life

Fatigue failure occurs due to repeated or fluctuating stresses over time, even if the stresses are below
the material’s yield strength. The design goal is to ensure the component survives its intended
number of load cycles without failure.

Key Design Considerations

1. Material Selection
o Use materials with high fatigue strength or a clear endurance limit (e.g., steels).
2. Stress Concentration Minimization
o Avoid sharp corners, notches, or holes.
o Use fillets, smooth transitions, or surface treatments.
3. Load Analysis
o Determine stress type: fully reversed, fluctuating, or random.
o Consider mean stress effects using Goodman, Gerber, or Soderberg diagrams.
4. Fatigue Life Estimation
o High-cycle fatigue: Use S-N curves.
o Low-cycle fatigue: Use ε-N curves (strain-life).
o Fracture mechanics: Use if cracks or flaws are present.
5. Surface Quality & Residual Stresses
o Polishing and treatments like shot peening improve fatigue life.
o Introduce compressive residual stresses to delay crack initiation.
6. Safety Factors
o Apply based on application criticality and uncertainty in loading.

Factors Affecting Fatigue Life

1. Material Properties: The material's fatigue strength, yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength
affect its fatigue life.
2. Loading Conditions: The type, magnitude, and frequency of loading can impact fatigue life.
3. Design Geometry: The design's geometry, including stress concentrations, can affect fatigue life.
4. Surface Finish: The surface finish can impact fatigue life, with smoother surfaces generally
performing better.
5. Environmental Conditions: Environmental factors, such as temperature, corrosion, and humidity,
can affect fatigue life.

Design Strategies for Fatigue Strength and Life

1. Material Selection: Choose materials with high fatigue strength and resistance to fatigue crack
growth.
2. Design Optimization: Optimize the design to minimize stress concentrations and reduce loading
on critical components.
3. Surface Treatment: Apply surface treatments, such as shot peening or nitriding, to improve fatigue
strength.
4. Fatigue Analysis: Perform fatigue analysis to predict the product's fatigue life and identify
potential failure points.
5. Testing and Validation: Test and validate the product's fatigue performance to ensure it meets
design requirements.
Fatigue Analysis Techniques

1. Stress-Life (S-N) Approach: This approach uses stress-life curves to predict fatigue life based on
the material's fatigue strength.
2. Strain-Life (ε-N) Approach: This approach uses strain-life curves to predict fatigue life based on
the material's strain response.
3. Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis: This approach analyzes the growth of fatigue cracks and predicts
the product's fatigue life.

Benefits of Designing for Fatigue Strength and Life

1. Increased Product Reliability: Designing for fatigue strength and life can increase product
reliability and reduce the risk of failure.
2. Reduced Maintenance Costs: By designing products to withstand fatigue, maintenance costs can
be reduced.
3. Improved Safety: Designing for fatigue strength and life can improve product safety by reducing
the risk of catastrophic failure.
4. Increased Product Life: Designing for fatigue strength and life can increase product life, reducing
the need for frequent replacements.

 Types of stress variation

There are several types of stress variation that can occur in materials and structures, including:

1. Cyclic Stress
- Definition: Cyclic stress refers to the repeated application of stress on a material or structure,
resulting in a cycle of loading and unloading.
- Examples: Engine components, gears, and bearings.

2. Static Stress
- Definition: Static stress refers to a constant stress applied to a material or structure over a
prolonged period.
- Examples: Buildings, bridges, and weight-bearing structures.

3. Dynamic Stress
- Definition: Dynamic stress refers to stress that varies with time, often due to external forces or
vibrations.
- Examples: Aircraft structures, vehicle suspension systems.

4. Tensile Stress
- Definition: Tensile stress refers to stress that pulls a material apart, causing it to stretch or elongate.
- Examples: Cables, ropes, and tensile structures.
5. Compressive Stress
- Definition: Compressive stress refers to stress that squeezes a material, causing it to compress or
shorten.
- Examples: Columns, pillars, and compressive structures.

6. Shear Stress
- Definition: Shear stress refers to stress that causes a material to deform by sliding along a plane
parallel to the direction of the force.
- Examples: Beams, plates, and adhesive joints.

7. Torsional Stress
- Definition: Torsional stress refers to stress that causes a material to twist or rotate around a central
axis.
- Examples: Shafts, axles, and torsional springs.

8. Impact Stress
- Definition: Impact stress refers to stress caused by a sudden application of force or impact.
- Examples: Crash structures, protective gear, and impact-resistant materials.

9. Thermal Stress
- Definition: Thermal stress refers to stress caused by temperature changes, which can cause
materials to expand or contract.
- Examples: Heat exchangers, piping systems, and electronic components.
Understanding the types of stress variation is crucial for designing and analyzing structures and
materials to ensure they can withstand various loading conditions.

 Design for fluctuating stresses

Designing for fluctuating stresses is crucial to ensure that products can withstand repeated loading
and unloading cycles without failing. Here are some key considerations:

Factors Affecting Fluctuating Stresses

1. Mean Stress: The average stress level over a cycle.

2. Stress Amplitude: The difference between the maximum and minimum stress levels.
3. Stress Ratio: The ratio of minimum to maximum stress.
4. Frequency: The number of cycles per unit time.

Design Strategies for Fluctuating Stresses

1. Material Selection: Choose materials with high fatigue strength and resistance to fatigue crack
growth.
2. Design Optimization: Optimize the design to minimize stress concentrations and reduce loading
on critical components.
3. Surface Finish: Ensure a smooth surface finish to reduce stress concentrations and improve fatigue
life.
4. Fatigue Analysis: Perform fatigue analysis to predict the product's fatigue life and identify
potential failure points.

Fatigue Analysis Techniques

1. Stress-Life (S-N) Approach: This approach uses stress-life curves to predict fatigue life based on
the material's fatigue strength.
2. Strain-Life (ε-N) Approach: This approach uses strain-life curves to predict fatigue life based on
the material's strain response.
3. Fatigue Crack Growth Analysis: This approach analyzes the growth of fatigue cracks and predicts
the product's fatigue life.

Benefits of Designing for Fluctuating Stresses

1. Increased Product Reliability: Designing for fluctuating stresses can increase product reliability
and reduce the risk of failure.
2. Reduced Maintenance Costs: By designing products to withstand fluctuating stresses,
maintenance costs can be reduced.
3. Improved Safety: Designing for fluctuating stresses can improve product safety by reducing the
risk of catastrophic failure.
4. Increased Product Life: Designing for fluctuating stresses can increase product life, reducing the
need for frequent replacements.

 Design for limited cycles, multiple stress cycles,

Designing for limited cycles and multiple stress cycles is crucial to ensure that products can
withstand repeated loading and unloading cycles without failing. Here are some key
considerations:

Designing for Limited Cycles

1. Low-Cycle Fatigue (LCF): LCF occurs when a material is subjected to a small number of
high-stress cycles.
2. Material Selection: Choose materials with high ductility and resistance to LCF.
3. Design Optimization: Optimize the design to minimize stress concentrations and reduce
loading on critical components.

Designing for Multiple Stress Cycles

1. High-Cycle Fatigue (HCF): HCF occurs when a material is subjected to a large number of
low-stress cycles.
2. Material Selection: Choose materials with high fatigue strength and resistance to HCF.
3. Design Optimization: Optimize the design to minimize stress concentrations and reduce
loading on critical components.

Key Considerations
1. Stress Amplitude: The difference between the maximum and minimum stress levels.
2. Mean Stress: The average stress level over a cycle.
3. Stress Ratio: The ratio of minimum to maximum stress.
4. Cycle Count: The number of cycles the product is expected to withstand.

Design Analysis Techniques

1. Fatigue Analysis: Perform fatigue analysis to predict the product's fatigue life and identify
potential failure points.
2. Stress-Life (S-N) Approach: This approach uses stress-life curves to predict fatigue life based
on the material's fatigue strength.
3. Strain-Life (ε-N) Approach: This approach uses strain-life curves to predict fatigue life based
on the material's strain response.

Benefits of Designing for Limited and Multiple Stress Cycles

1. Increased Product Reliability: Designing for limited and multiple stress cycles can increase
product reliability and reduce the risk of failure.
2. Reduced Maintenance Costs: By designing products to withstand limited and multiple stress
cycles, maintenance costs can be reduced.
3. Improved Safety: Designing for limited and multiple stress cycles can improve product safety
by reducing the risk of catastrophic failure.
4. Increased Product Life: Designing for limited and multiple stress cycles can increase product
life, reducing the need for frequent replacements.

 Fatigue failure theories

Fatigue failure theories are used to predict the fatigue life of materials and structures under cyclic
loading. Here are some common fatigue failure theories:

1. S-N Curve Theory

Using this test, the stress amplitudes associated with fatigue failure after N cycles can be
determined and plotted as shown for the case of steel in Figure 4.
The curve of figure 4 is sometimes referred as the S-N curve. We denote the value of σa for
failure after N cycles as σN. Note that for steels, there is a stress level below which no failure is
observed. This is known as the endurance limit. It generally does not exist for other materials
such as aluminum, etc. Figure 5 shows a comparison of two S-N curves for steel, with an
endurance limit, and aluminum, without an endurance limit.

It is to be emphasized that fatigue failure can occur even though the stress never exceeds the
elastic limit of the material. In the elastic range, the fatigue failure usually occurs after 105
cycles of stress (high cycle fatigue). For large stresses causing plastic deformation, much fewer
cycles of stress are needed for failure (low cycle fatigue). In low-cycle fatigue, the strain vs.
number of cycles is plotted, since the calculation of stress by elastic formulas is no longer valid.

2. Goodman Diagram Theory

The effect of mean stress on modifying the stress amplitude σa needed for failure after N cycles is
estimated using the Goodman-Soderberg relation. This assumes that when the mean stress equals the
failure stress σu of the material, the additional stress amplitude σa for failure after N cycles is zero. It
also uses the fact that the stress amplitude for failure at N cycles will be that from the usual S-N
curve (σN) when the mean stress is zero and it assumes a linear relation between these two extremes
as shown in figure 6.

3. Modified Goodman Diagram

The key limitation of S-N Curve is the inability to predict life at stress ratios different from those
under which the curve was developed. These diagrams are still limited by specimen geometry,
surface condition and material characteristic. Modified Goodman diagram is used for fatigue
analysis of piston accumulator because the material is ductile and exhibits high cycle fatigue. In the
S-N curve above, the region of low cycle fatigue extends from N=1 to 103 cycles. In this reason the
fatige
In the S-N curve above, the region of low cycle fatigue extends from N=1 to 103 cycles. In this
reason the fatigue strength Sf is only slightly smaller than the tensile strength.

4. Gerber Diagram Theory (Fatigue with Mean Stress)

The Gerber theory is used to predict fatigue failure under fluctuating or alternating stresses
where mean stress is non-zero.

Unlike the linear Goodman theory, Gerber uses a parabolic relation—making it more accurate for
ductile materials.
The Gerber diagram, also known as the Gerber line, is a parabolic curve used in material failure
theory to represent the interaction between mean and alternating stresses on a material's fatigue
life. It's a graphical representation that helps predict when a material will fail under fluctuating stress
conditions, considering both the average stress (mean stress) and the stress variation (alternating
stress).

 Cumulative fatigue damage

Cumulative fatigue damage refers to the progressive and permanent structural degradation of a
material subjected to cyclic loading (i.e., repeated stress or strain over time). It plays a critical role
in fatigue life prediction and failure analysis in engineering, especially in components like bridges,
aircraft, vehicles, and machinery.

1. Fatigue Life (Nf)

Fatigue is the process of progressive localized permanent structural change occurring in a material
subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and that
may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. The idea of
fluctuating stresses and strains is critical. The need to have fluctuating (repeated or cyclic) stresses
acting under either constant amplitude or variable amplitude is critical to fatigue.

Fatigue life is the number of loading (stress or strain) cycles of a specified character that a specimen
sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs. For some metals, notably steel and titanium,
there is a theoretical value for stress amplitude below which the material will not fail for any number
of cycles, called a fatigue limit, endurance limit, or fatigue strength.

The majority of engineering failures are caused by fatigue. There is very little warning or no
warming at all before fatigue failure, therefore the consequences are often catastrophic.
 In dealing with fatigue life problems, two different assumptions are made:

1. The material is an ideal homogeneous, continuous, isotropic continuum that is free of defects or
flaws.
2. The material is an ideal homogeneous, isotropic continuum but contains an ideal crack like
discontinuity that may or may not be considered a defect or flaw, depending on the entire design
approach.

 What is fatigue life?

Fatigue is the process of progressive localized permanent structural change occurring in a material
subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points and that
may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. The idea of
fluctuating stresses and strains is critical. The need to have fluctuating (repeated or cyclic) stresses
acting under either constant amplitude or variable amplitude is critical to fatigue.

Fatigue life is the number of loading (stress or strain) cycles of a specified character that a specimen
sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs. For some metals, notably steel and titanium,
there is a theoretical value for stress amplitude below which the material will not fail for any number
of cycles, called a fatigue limit, endurance limit, or fatigue strength.

The majority of engineering failures are caused by fatigue. There is very little warning or no
warming at all before fatigue failure; therefore the consequences are often catastrophic.

In dealing with fatigue life problems, two different assumptions are made:

1. The material is an ideal homogeneous, continuous, isotropic continuum that is free of defects or
flaws.
2. The material is an ideal homogeneous, isotropic continuum but contains an ideal cracklike
discontinuity that may or may not be considered a defect or flaw, depending on the entire design
approach.

The first assumption leads to either the stress-life or strain-life fatigue design approach. These
approaches are typically used to design for finite life or infinite life. The second assumption leads to
the damage-tolerant approach. The damage-tolerant approach is based on the ability to track the
damage throughout the entire life cycle of the component, and it couples directly to nondestructive
inspection.
General applicability of the stress-life method is restricted to circumstances where continuum free of
defects or flaws assumptions can be applied. However, as elements inherently contain
discontinuities, some design guidelines for elements offer procedures with a variety of joint types
that generally follow the stress-life approach, with the severity of discontinuities taken into account
by different stress categories. The advantages of this method are simplicity and ease of application.
It is best applied in or near the elastic range, addressing situations in high cycle fatigue regime.

In the low cycle, inelastic regime of material behavior, the description of local events in terms of
strain made more sense and resulted in the development of assessment techniques that used strain as
a determining quantity. The general data presentation is in terms of ε-N (log strain vs. log number of
cycles or number of reversals to failure). The failure criterion for samples is usually the detection of
a small crack in the sample or some equivalent measure related to a substantive change in load-
deflection response, although failure may also be defined by separation.

Many components have crack-like discontinuities induced during service or repair or as a result of
processing, fabrication, or manufacturing. It is clear that in many instances, parts containing such
discontinuities do continue to bear load and can operate safely for extended periods of time. The
design philosophy, damage-tolerant, was thus developed. It is intended expressly to address the
issue of cracked components. In the case where a crack is present, an alternative controlling quantity
is employed. Typically, this is the mode I stress intensity range at the crack tip (ΔK I), determined as
a function of crack location, orientation, and size within the geometry of the part. This fracture
mechanics parameter is then related to the potential for crack extension under the imposed cyclic
loads for either subcritical growth or the initiation of unstable fracture of the part. Property
descriptions for the crack extension under cyclic loading are typically da/dN – ΔK I curves (log crack
growth rate vs. log stress-intensity range).

The advantage of the damage-tolerant design philosophy is the ability to treat cracked objects in a
direct and appropriate fashion. Use of the stress intensity values and appropriate properties allows
the number of cycles of crack growth over a range of crack sizes to be estimated and fracture to be
predicted. The clear tie of crack size, orientation, and geometry to NonDestructive Examination
(NDE) is also a plus. Disadvantages are: computationally intensive stress-intensity factor
determinations, greater complexity in development and modeling of property data, and the necessity
to perform numerical integration to determine crack growth. In addition, the predicted lives are
considerably influenced by the initial crack size used in the calculation, requiring quantitative
development of probability of detection for each type of NDE technique employed.
In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads called
cyclic loads. It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be
much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the
yield stress limit.

Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are above
a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentration regions such as
the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces. This is the crack initiation phase N i.
Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will
fracture. This is the crack propagation phase N p. The total fatigue life Nf is the summation of the
two phases:

Nf = Ni + Np

The shape of the structure and surface finish of the material will significantly affect the fatigue life,
especially at the crack initiation phase. Square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local
stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will increase
the fatigue life of the structure. Smooth surfaces will also improve fatigue life. In the crack
propagation phase however, the surface condition is insignificant. For machine components the
crack initiation phase accounts for most of the life; for welded connections, small crack-like
imperfections are generally present during welding process, the entire life is considered to be spent
mostly (90% to 100%) in the propagation phase.

In fatigue life analysis, it is important to distinguish stress range Δσ, stress amplitude σ a, and
maximum stress σmax. It is the stress range (i.e. the fluctuation of the stresses), rather than maximum
stress, that drives fatigue damage. Going hand-in-hand, the stress amplitude σa and mean stress
σm are the important parameters in fatigue life analysis.
The stress range Δσ is the difference between the maximum stress σ max and minimum stress σmin in a
loading cycle:

Δσ = σmax – σmin = 2σa

The effect of mean stress is expressed by a stress ratio R:

R = σmin / σmax = (σm – σa) / (σm + σa)

2. Miner’s Rule and Cumulative Damage

Miner’s rule is one of the most widely used cumulative damage models for failures caused by
fatigue. It is called "Miner’s rule" because it was popularized by M. A. Miner in 1945. In this article,
we will explain what it is and how it is related to other more advanced cumulative damage models.

Miner’s rule is probably the simplest cumulative damage model. It states that if there are k different
stress levels and the average number of cycles to failure at the ith stress, Si, is Ni, then the damage
fraction, C, is:

where:

 ni is the number of cycles accumulated at stress Si.

 C is the fraction of life consumed by exposure to the cycles at the different stress levels. In
general, when the damage fraction reaches 1, failure occurs.
The above equation can be thought of as assessing the proportion of life consumed at each stress
level and then adding the proportions for all the levels together. Often an index for quantifying the
damage is defined as the product of stress and the number of cycles operated under this stress, which
is:
For example, let’s say WFailure=50 for a component. So the component will fail after 10 cycles at a
stress level of 5, or after 25 cycles to fail at a stress level of 2, and so on. Using Eqn. (2) as the
critical value of damage that will result in failure, Eqn. (1) becomes:

C represents the proportion of the cumulative damage to the critical value.

Limitations of Miner's Rule

 Assumes damage accumulates linearly (not always realistic)

 Ignores load sequence effects (e.g., overloads or under loads)
 Doesn’t consider load interaction or material memory

 Thermal Fatigue
Thermal Fatigue

Thermal fatigue (TF) is related to structures subjected to cyclic thermal loadings that are likely to
lead to initiation of cracks, crack propagation and failure. Thermal fatigue is the gradual
deterioration and eventual cracking of a material by alternate heating and cooling during which free
thermal expansion is partially or completely constrained. If a mechanical loading is also involved
along with thermal loading, it is termed as thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF). Thermal strains
induced and related to the dilation of materials lead to some mechanical strains due to clamped
boundary conditions or due to a structural effect from thermal gradients across the material, for
example, hot zones surrounded by colder zones, or vice versa. The constraints can be external, such
as bolting or welding, or they can be internal, such as different thermal expansion due to different
materials connected. Cracks may develop after many cycles of heating and cooling.

When a break disc is subjected to the friction of the break pad, the surface of the disc is suddenly
heated over a relatively thin layer which leads to a surface compressive stress due to the constraint of
the colder material. When the stress becomes significant at high temperature the material can
plastify. When it cools down, residual tensile stresses can develop on the disc surface. It can lead to
the development of a cyclic plasticity after each heating-cooling cycle, and thus low cycle fatigue
damage.
Many industrial structures are subjected to rapid temperature variations during their use: gas and
steam turbines, boilers, automobile engines, forming tools, nuclear reactors, etc. Thermal fatigue is
a major concern for these structures.

Thermal fatigue is common in castings in which part of the casting experiences a fluctuating high
temperature whilst other parts of the casting remain a lower temperature. The phenomenon is seen in
aluminum alloy cylinder heads and pistons for internal combustion engines, particularly diesel
engines and air-cooled internal combustion engines. It is also common in the casting industry with
the crazing and sometimes catastrophic failure of high-pressure-die-casting dies made from steels,
and gravity dies and ingot molds made from gray cast iron.

The valve bridge between the exhaust valves in a four-valve diesel engine is an excellent example of
the problem. In brief, the majority of the casting remains fairly cool, its temperature controlled by
water cooling. However, the small section of casting that forms a bridge, separating the exhaust
valves, can become extremely hot, reaching a temperature in excess of 300°C. The bridge therefore
attempts to expand by αΔT where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion and ΔT is the increase in
temperature. For a value of α about 20 × 10-6 K–1 for an aluminum alloy, an expansion of 300 × 20 ×
10–6 = 0.6% can be predicted. This is a large value when it is considered that the strain to cause
yielding is only about 0.1%. Furthermore, since the casting as a whole is cool, strong, and rigid, the
bridge region is prevented from expanding. It therefore suffers a plastic compression of about
0.6%. If it remains at this temperature for sufficient time, stress relief will occur, so that the stress
will fall from above the yield point to somewhere near zero.

However, when the engine is switched off, the valve bridge cools to the temperature of the rest of the
casting, and so now suffers the same problem in reverse, undergoing a tensile test, plastically
extending by up to 0.6%.

The starting and stopping of the engine therefore causes the imposition of an extreme high strain and
consequent stress on the exhaust valve bridge. For those materials, such as a poorly cast aluminum
alloy, which has perhaps only 0.5% elongation to failure available, it is not surprising that failure can
occur in the first cycle. What perhaps is more surprising is that any metallic materials survive this
punishing treatment at all. It is clear that modern cylinder heads can undergo thousands of such
cycles into the plastic range without failure.

High temperature fatigue is a vast and complex problem in which many materials are adopted
nowadays, the vast majority falling into the following three families:

1) 9% – 12% Cr, plus Mo, steels in power generation industry;

2) Austenitic stainless steels, in power generation industry;

3) Ni-based super alloys, in gas turbines in jet engine industry.

With increased temperature, there is a tendency for more homogeneous band slip, which delays the
onset of fatigue crack initiation. However, in most cases increasing the temperature reduces the
lifespan of the material. This decreased fatigue life is directly related to oxidation.

Thermal fatigue life can be improved by reducing the temperature and temperature gradient or
alleviate the geometric constraints. For example, while larger wall thicknesses of a steam drum will
reduce mechanical stress due to internal pressure, it will however increase thermal gradient and
thermal stresses, hence reduce fatigue life. In other words, thinner wall thickness is beneficial to the
fatigue life of steam drums and other hot pressure vessels. Using slots or grooves in the component
may eliminate the constraints for thermal expansion.

 Thermal shock

1. Thermal shock (stress) can lead to excessive thermal gradients on materials, which lead to
excessive stresses. These stresses can be comprised of tensile stress, which is stress arising
from forces acting in opposite directions tending to pull a material apart, and compressive
stress, which is stress arising from forces acting in opposite directions tending to push a
material together. These stresses, cyclic in nature, can lead to fatigue failure of the materials.
2. Thermal shock is caused by non uniform heating or cooling of a uniform material, or uniform
heating of non uniform materials. Suppose a body is heated and constrained so that it cannot
expand. When the temperature of the material increases, the increased activity of the
molecules causes them to press against the constraining boundaries, thus setting up thermal
stresses.
3. If the material is not constrained, it expands, and one or more of its dimensions increases.
The thermal expansion coefficient (α) relates the fractional change in length ΔL/L, called
thermal strain, to the change in temperature per degree ΔT.
  Harmful & Beneficial Residual Stresses
Residual stresses can be both harmful and beneficial to a material's performance. Compressive
residual stresses, especially on the surface, are generally beneficial, increasing fatigue strength,
slowing crack propagation, and enhancing resistance to environmentally assisted cracking. However,
tensile residual stresses can have detrimental effects, such as increasing the risk of cracking and
reducing fatigue life.

1. Residual Stresses Related to Welding

Welding is one of the most common causes of significant residual stresses. The cooler parent
metal restrains contraction of the weld metal upon cooling leading to inevitably large residual
stresses. Moreover, phase and volumetric changes at the microscopic level also contribute to the
residual stress phenomenon during welding. Being able to predict and model residual stresses in
different weldment configurations is important is assessing the possibility of failure. Modeling of
residual stresses is not a simple task; there are many variables involved:
• Temperature.
• Time.
• Weld geometry.
• Thickness of material.
• Joint restraint.
• Weld sequences
• Heat input and cooling rates

2. Residual stress due to phase transformation

A phase transformation is a change in the metallurgical phases present in an alloy. For
example, the transformation from austenite to marten site in steel during through hardening is a
phase transformation. Residual stresses that arise during a phase transformation are due to the
volume difference between the newly forming and initial metallurgical phases.
The volume difference causes expansion or contraction of the metal. For phase
transformations that occur during cooling from an elevated temperature, such as in steel, the outer
portions of the metal cool first and undergo the phase transformation first. If the volume of the new
phase is different from the volume of the initial phase, then the transformed volume of metal will
change as the new phase forms. As the interior of the metal cools it will also try to increase or
decrease in volume.
However, the volume change of the metal interior will be constrained by the cooler outer
layer of metal that has already transformed. When the volume of the new phase is larger than the
volume of the initial phase, the center portion of the component will be under compression and the
surface will be under tension. When the volume of the new phase is less than the volume of the
initial phase, the center portion of the component will be under tension and the portion of the metal
at and near the surface will be under compression.
For example, during through hardening of steel during a quench, austenite transforms to
marten site, with the marten site having a volume that is about 4% greater than austenite. During the
quench, the steel at the surface transforms to marten site first since the surface cools the fastest. As
the metal at the interior continues to cool, it transforms to marten site. However, its volume
expansion is restricted by the hardened, cooler surface layer. This restraint causes the interior to be
under compression and the outer surface under tension.

3. Residual stresses caused by mechanical treatment

Residual stresses also arise when plastic deformation is non-uniform through the cross-
section of an item being deformed such as during bending, drawing, rolling, and extruding. When a
metal undergoes plastic deformation, a portion of the deformation is elastic (discussed in Tensile
Testing). After the load causing the deformation is removed, the metal tries to recover the elastic
portion of the deformation. However, the elastic recovery is incomplete because it is opposed by the
adjacent plastically deformed material.
Consider a metal item that has been bent. Regions adjacent to the bend will have been only
elastically deformed, and this region will try to recover, a phenomenon known as spring back. After
removing the external force, the regions which have been bent prevent the adjacent regions from
undergoing complete elastic recovery to the non-deformed condition.
These regions are left in a state of residual tension and the regions which were plastically
deformed are in a state of residual compression. In general, the sign of the residual stress produced
by non-uniform deformation will be opposite the sign of the plastic deformation which produced the
residual stress.

Causes of Harmful Residual Stresses –

Welding: Rapid heating and cooling can create high tensile stress at the weld zone.
Casting: Uneven solidification causes stress imbalances.
Machining: Uneven removal of material can introduce stress gradients.
Improper Heat Treatment: Thermal gradients during quenching or annealing.

Effects on Materials - Reduced fatigue life - Increased risk of stress corrosion cracking - Distortion
or warping during service - Reduced load capacity Examples of Failures - Cracking in welded
pressure vessels - Warped aircraft panels - Early fatigue failure in engine components Detection &
Measurement - X-ray diffraction (XRD) - Hole-drilling method

Yield Strength

The yield strength decides whether an object is stubborn or malleable. It is the point at which an
object ceases to be elastic and becomes plastic. Yield strength helps us choose appropriate materials
for the construction based on the requirement. The toys we adore were built from something as
pliant as plastic and not from metals because it would have been impossible to mould them into the
unconventional shapes that we so dearly love. In this article, we shall discuss yield strength in detail.
Stress-Strain Graph

The strength of a material can be determined by a test known as the tensile test. In this test, the
material is mercilessly pulled from both ends. The relationship between the stress to which the object
is subjected to and consequently the strain it suffers can be graphed, and this graph is known as
the stress-strain graph.

From the stress-strain graph given above, we notice that the material initially behaves like an elastic
when stretched. Under the elastic limit, the strain caused by the stress is reversible. The material
stretches, but once the stress is released, it retains its original length.

Excess stress will permanently deform a material, and the application of greater stress results in the
formation of a ‘neck’ along with the deformation. Even greater stress will break the neck. The
material eventually ceases to the stress and suffers a tragic fracture.

Explanation of Stress-Strain Graph

The stress-strain graph has different points or regions as follows:

  Proportional limit
 Elastic limit
 Yield point
 Ultimate stress point
 Fracture or breaking point
(i) Proportional Limit

The region in the stress-strain curve obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress ratio with strain
gives us a proportionality constant known as young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph is called
the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit

It is the point in the graph where the material returns to its original position when the load acting on
it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position, and a
plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the
yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper
yield point and (ii) lower yield point.

(iv) Ultimate Stress Point:

It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure. Beyond this
point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point:

It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place.

Yield Strength Graph

Each and every material possesses a characteristic stress-strain curve that allows us to determine
what application they are best suited for. Each material curve possesses different transition points,
i.e. from elasticity to plasticity and finally to breakage.

 The point at which the material transforms from elastic to plastic is known as the yield point.
 The magnitude of the stress at which the transition from elastic to plastic occurs is known as
the yield strength.
 Yield strength is a constant that represents the maximum limit of elastic behaviour.
 Ductile materials like metals have higher yield strength values than plastics.
The stress-strain graph of different materials are given below

Transformation

➤ Definition:

Transformation refers to a change in the internal structure or phase of a material. It’s common
in metals and alloys when exposed to temperature changes, stress, or chemical reactions.

➤ Types of Transformations:

 Phase transformation: e.g., Austenite ↔ Martensite in steel

 Solid-state transformation: No melting involved, just rearrangement of atoms
 Diffusional transformation: Atoms migrate (e.g., pearlite formation)
 Displacive transformation: Quick, without atomic diffusion (e.g., martensitic
transformation)

One of the most common problems in mechanics of materials involves transformation of axes. For
instance, we may know the stresses acting on x,y planes, but are really more interested in the stresses
acting on planes oriented at, say, 30◦ to the x axis as seen in Fig. 1, perhaps because these are close-
packed atomic planes on which sliding is prone to occur, or is the angle at which two pieces of
lumber are glued together in a “scarf” joint.
We seek a means to transform the stresses to these new x,y planes. These transformations are vital in
analyses of stress and strain, both because they are needed to compute critical values of these entities
and also because the tonsorial nature of stress and strain is most clearly seen in their transformation
properties. Other entities, such as moment of inertia and curvature, also transform in a manner
similar to stress and strain. All of these are second-rank tensors, an important concept that will be
outlined later in this module.

➤ Example:

 Heating steel: ferrite + cementite → austenite

 Quenching steel: austenite → martensite (hard, brittle)
 Unit 05

SURFACE FAILURES

Surface failures refer to damages or defects that appear on the outermost layer of a material or
component. These failures can be caused by various factors, including fatigue, corrosion, erosion,
and stress. Surface failures can significantly impact the functionality and lifespan of a component,
potentially leading to complete failure if left unaddressed.

Types of Surface Failures:

 Surface Fatigue:
This type of failure occurs due to repeated loading and unloading stresses, leading to the formation
of cracks and eventually, complete material failure.
 Corrosion:
Chemical reactions between a material and its surrounding environment can lead to degradation of
the surface, weakening the material and potentially causing failure.
 Erosion:
The wear and tear of a material surface due to the impact of particles or fluids can lead to surface
damage and material loss.
 Pitting:
A form of surface fatigue where small pits or cavities develop on the surface due to localized
stresses.
 Spalling:
A more severe form of pitting where larger pieces of material flake off the surface.
 Stress Corrosion Cracking:
The combination of tensile stress and a corrosive environment can lead to cracking and eventual
failure.
 Fretting:
Wear that occurs on the contacting surfaces of components that are subjected to cyclic loads and
relative motion.
Causes of Surface Failures:
 Material Properties:
The hardness, strength, and resistance to corrosion of a material can influence its susceptibility to
surface failure.
 Loading Conditions:
The magnitude and frequency of applied loads, as well as the type of stress (e.g., tensile,
compressive, shear), can impact the likelihood of surface failure.
 Environmental Factors:
 Exposure to corrosive substances, extreme temperatures, or abrasive particles can accelerate
surface damage.

 Manufacturing Processes:
Deficiencies in manufacturing processes, such as poor surface finish or the presence of defects,
can increase the risk of surface failure.
 Design:
Poor design choices, such as inadequate stress relief or the use of incompatible materials, can
contribute to surface failures.
Examples of Surface Failures:
 Gear Teeth Pitting:
Surface fatigue can cause pitting on the teeth of gears, reducing their load-carrying capacity and
potentially leading to gear breakage.
 Pavement Cracking:
Fatigue, corrosion, and erosion can cause cracks in pavement surfaces, impacting their structural
integrity and durability.
 Corrosion of Metal Components:
Exposure to corrosive environments can lead to the formation of rust or other corrosion products
on metal surfaces, weakening them and potentially causing failure.
 Erosion of Turbine Blades:
The impact of airborne particles or fluids on turbine blades can lead to erosion and the loss of
material, reducing their efficiency and potentially causing failure.
Preventing Surface Failures:
 Material Selection:
Choose materials that are appropriate for the intended application and can withstand the expected
loads and environmental conditions.
 Surface Treatment:
Applying protective coatings, heat treatments, or other surface treatments can enhance the
resistance of materials to surface failures.
 Design Optimization:
Optimize the design of components to minimize stress concentrations and ensure adequate stress
distribution.
 Proper Maintenance:
Regularly inspect components for signs of surface damage and implement preventative
maintenance measures to address any issues before they lead to failure.
 Corrosion Prevention:
Implement measures to protect materials from corrosive environments, such as applying protective
coatings, using corrosion-resistant materials, or controlling the surrounding environment.

 Surface geometry
 Surface geometry refers to the shape, texture, and roughness of a component's surface.

1. Introduction to Surface Geometry in Failure

Surface failure in mechanical components is a critical concern across industries such as aerospace,
automotive, and manufacturing. Surface geometry—defined by the shape, texture, and topography of
a component’s exterior—plays a fundamental role in how and why these failures occur. It influences
how a surface interacts with external forces, other materials, and environmental conditions.

2. Surface Geometry Defined

Surface geometry includes both macro-geometry (the overall shape and curvature of the surface)
and micro-geometry (surface roughness and texture). These features can be characterized through
various parameters, such as surface roughness (Ra), waviness, and form errors. Even small
variations in surface geometry can lead to significant differences in stress distribution and contact
behavior, directly impacting failure modes.

3. Stress Concentration and Curvature Effects

Sharp corners, notches, and abrupt geometric transitions can lead to stress concentrations. These
localized increases in stress exceed the material’s average stress levels and often serve as initiation
sites for fatigue cracks or fracture. Smooth geometric transitions, such as fillets, help reduce these
concentrations and increase the lifespan of components.

4. Influence on Contact Mechanics

When two surfaces come into contact, their geometries dictate how the load is shared. Ideal contact
surfaces distribute stress uniformly, but in reality, surface asperities (peaks) lead to localized high-
stress points. This can accelerate wear, deformation, or surface fatigue, especially in sliding or
rolling contact components like gears and bearings.

5. Surface Roughness and Wear

Surface roughness directly influences friction, adhesion, and wear behavior. Rougher surfaces tend
to increase friction and are more susceptible to abrasive or adhesive wear. Conversely, overly
smooth surfaces may also cause issues like cold welding or galling under high contact pressures,
depending on the application and lubrication conditions.

6. Role in Fatigue and Subsurface Cracking

Repeated cyclic loading can cause fatigue failure, and surface geometry plays a vital role in where
and how these failures initiate. Rough or damaged surfaces provide micro-notches where cracks can
begin. Furthermore, surface features affect subsurface stress distributions, influencing the depth and
orientation of potential cracks.

7. Lubrication and Surface Interaction

Surface texture affects how lubricants spread and maintain a film between moving parts. Surfaces
with appropriate roughness can retain lubricant in micro-valleys, improving wear resistance.
However, improper surface geometry can lead to lubricant starvation, increased friction, and
accelerated surface degradation.

8. Surface Treatments and Engineering

To mitigate failure, engineers often modify surface geometry through processes such as polishing,
grinding, shot peening, and coating. These treatments are designed to reduce roughness, introduce
beneficial compressive stresses, or alter surface topography to enhance resistance to wear and
fatigue.

9. Surface Geometry in Design and Analysis

Modern design tools, like finite element analysis (FEA), incorporate surface geometry data to
simulate stress distributions, contact mechanics, and wear patterns. Accurate surface modeling is
essential for predicting failure under real-world conditions. Additionally, 3D surface scanning
technologies are increasingly used to inspect and monitor component degradation over time.

 Mating Surfaces

When two components come into contact, their mating surfaces experience complex interactions
involving normal and shear forces, friction, and material deformation. Surface failures often
originate at these interfaces due to the combination of mechanical, thermal, and sometimes chemical
effects. The main types of surface failures associated with mating surfaces include

 Introduction to Mating Surfaces

In mechanical systems, mating surfaces refer to the contact areas between two or more components
that interact through relative motion or load transmission. These surfaces are critical to the
functionality of machines, as they bear forces, transfer motion, and often determine the efficiency
and durability of the system. Despite appearing smooth to the naked eye, all mating surfaces are
microscopically rough and interact through tiny contact points known as asperities. The behavior of
these surfaces under load is a key factor in determining the likelihood of surface failures.

 Apparent vs. Real Area of Contact

The apparent area of contact is the nominal area where two parts seem to touch based on geometric
dimensions. However, due to surface roughness, actual contact only occurs at the peaks of
microscopic asperities. This real area of contact is usually a small fraction of the apparent area. The
high stress concentration at these points often initiates deformation, wear, or material failure. As
load increases, these asperities deform plastically or elastically, gradually increasing the real contact
area and redistributing stress.

 Mechanisms of Surface Failure

Surface failure mechanisms begin at the micro-contact level. When the stress at asperity junctions
exceeds the material’s yield strength, plastic deformation occurs. Repeated loading and sliding can
initiate cracks, promote material transfer, or wear away surface material. These microscopic events
accumulate over time, leading to visible damage such as scratches, pits, cracks, or even component
malfunction. The environment, lubrication, and material hardness all influence these mechanisms.

 Adhesive Wear
One common surface failure mode is adhesive wear. This occurs when asperities from mating
surfaces weld together under load due to localized pressure and temperature. As the surfaces slide,
these junctions can tear apart, transferring material from one surface to another. Over time, this
causes galling, scoring, or the development of wear debris that may accelerate further damage.
Adhesive wear is particularly problematic in unlubricated or poorly lubricated systems.
 Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear happens when a harder surface or embedded particles scratch or cut into a softer
surface. It can occur as two-body abrasion (direct contact between surfaces) or three-body abrasion
(presence of loose particles between surfaces). Mating surfaces experiencing abrasive wear exhibit
grooves or roughened textures. This type of wear is common in environments with dust, dirt, or
inadequate filtration and is a major concern in construction, mining, and agricultural machinery.

 Surface Fatigue and Pitting

Surface fatigue occurs due to repeated cyclic loading at contact points. It leads to subsurface crack
initiation that gradually propagates toward the surface, forming pits or flakes—a phenomenon
known as spalling. This is especially prevalent in rolling element bearings, gears, and other
components subjected to fluctuating stresses. The repeated expansion and contraction of the contact
zone during load cycles intensify crack formation, eventually leading to significant surface
degradation.

 Fretting and Fretting Fatigue

Fretting is a form of wear that occurs due to small-amplitude oscillatory motion between mating
surfaces. The repeated micro-slip causes surface damage, oxidation, and debris formation, which can
become abrasive. Over time, fretting can initiate fatigue cracks, especially in high-cycle applications
such as turbine blade roots or press-fitted components. Unlike gross sliding, fretting is subtle and
often hard to detect before failure.

 Role of Lubrication and Surface Treatments

Proper lubrication plays a vital role in reducing surface failures by minimizing direct asperity
contact, reducing friction, and dissipating heat. Lubricants form a film between surfaces,
transforming boundary contact into hydrodynamic or elasto hydro dynamic regimes, depending on
load and speed. Surface treatments like nitriding, carburizing, or applying coatings (e.g., PVD, DLC)
can enhance hardness, reduce adhesion, and improve wear resistance, extending component life
significantly.

 Material Selection and Surface Matching

Selecting compatible materials for mating surfaces is crucial. A common approach is pairing hard
surfaces with slightly softer ones to distribute load effectively while preventing mutual abrasion. For
example, bronze is often used against steel in bearing applications. The design must also consider
thermal expansion, corrosion potential, and elastic modulus to prevent unintended stress
concentrations or wear patterns. Surface texture and finish must be tailored to the application’s
demands.

 Conclusion and Design Implications

Understanding the behavior of mating surfaces and their failure modes is essential for designing
reliable mechanical systems. Engineers must consider surface roughness, material properties,
loading conditions, lubrication, and environmental factors when designing interfaces. Surface
failures not only reduce component life but also lead to costly downtime and repairs. Through proper
design, surface engineering, and maintenance, the risk of such failures can be significantly reduced,
enhancing system durability and performance.
  Oil Film And Their Effects

Oil films play a crucial role in the tribological performance of mating surfaces, acting as a lubricant
in various mechanical systems. The main purpose of the oil film is to reduce friction, wear, and heat
generation between the contacting surfaces of two components. This is especially important in
systems where parts are in continuous motion, such as engines, gears, bearings, and pumps. The oil
film's thickness, composition, and the way it interacts with the surfaces involved have significant
effects on the performance and longevity of these systems.

1. Lubrication Regimes and Oil Film Formation

The lubrication between mating surfaces can be categorized into different regimes based on the
thickness of the oil film relative to the surface roughness. These are:

 Boundary Lubrication: This occurs when the oil film is too thin to completely separate the
surfaces, and metal-to-metal contact occurs at asperity peaks. In this regime, friction is high,
and surface wear is significant. Oil additives, such as anti-wear agents, are often used to
mitigate direct contact.
 Mixed Lubrication: In this regime, the oil film thickness is intermediate. The surfaces are
partially separated, but some asperities still make contact. The oil reduces friction compared
to boundary lubrication, but wear is still a concern. The effectiveness of the oil film increases
as the load and speed increase.
 Hydrodynamic Lubrication: In hydrodynamic lubrication, the oil film fully separates the
mating surfaces, forming a thick film. The load is carried entirely by the oil, and there is no
metal-to-metal contact. This results in very low friction and minimal wear. Hydrodynamic
lubrication is typically seen in high-speed, high-load conditions, such as in journal bearings.
 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL): This occurs under extreme pressures where the
oil film is still present but the surfaces deform elastically due to the applied load. EHL is
important in rolling or sliding contacts like gears or cam followers. The oil film must be
capable of supporting high pressure to avoid surface failure.

2. Effects of Oil Film on Friction and Wear

The oil film plays a pivotal role in reducing friction between mating surfaces. When a thick oil film
is present, it prevents direct contact between asperities on the surfaces, thereby reducing both friction
and wear. This leads to:

 Reduced Heat Generation: Frictional forces that would otherwise lead to excessive heat
build-up are mitigated. Oil helps dissipate heat and keeps the components within optimal
operating temperatures, which is essential in preventing thermal degradation of materials.
  Wear Prevention: By separating the surfaces, the oil film prevents the asperities from
coming into direct contact, reducing the likelihood of abrasive or adhesive wear. In boundary
lubrication, however, wear may still occur due to limited oil film thickness.
 Reduced Surface Damage: The oil film helps prevent surface damage such as pitting or
scoring that can result from metal-to-metal contact. This is especially important in
components like gears, where high-pressure zones could lead to fatigue and failure.

3. Oil Film Thickness and Load-Carrying Capacity

The thickness of the oil film is directly related to the load-carrying capacity of the lubrication
system. At low speeds or under high loads, the oil film may not be able to maintain separation
between the surfaces, leading to mixed or boundary lubrication. This can increase friction and wear.

 Load-Carrying Capacity in Hydrodynamic Lubrication: In hydrodynamic lubrication, the

oil film supports the load entirely. The thicker the oil film, the greater the load it can support
without causing surface contact. For example, in journal bearings, the oil film thickness is
critical to ensure that the shaft does not touch the bearing surface.
 Factors Affecting Oil Film Thickness: The oil film thickness depends on several factors,
including the viscosity of the lubricant, the surface roughness of the materials, the load
applied, and the speed of relative motion between the surfaces. Lubricant viscosity plays a
major role—higher viscosity oils tend to form thicker films, while lower viscosity oils are
more prone to breakdown under high loads.

4. Oil Film and Temperature Effects

Temperature has a significant impact on the performance of oil films. As temperature increases, the
viscosity of the oil decreases, which can lead to a thinner oil film. If the oil film becomes too thin,
friction increases, and the risk of surface damage rises.

 High Temperature Effects: In high-temperature environments, oil additives such as anti-

oxidants and anti-wear agents become essential to maintain the stability of the oil. Without
these additives, the oil can break down, leading to increased friction and wear. The oil must
also be able to maintain its lubricating properties in the face of elevated temperatures.
 Low Temperature Effects: At low temperatures, oil may become too viscous or even
solidify, preventing proper oil film formation. In such cases, the lubrication system may not
function properly until the oil reaches a suitable operating temperature.

5. Oil Additives and Their Role in Oil Films

Oil additives are crucial in enhancing the performance of oil films, especially in boundary
lubrication conditions. These additives include:
  Anti-Wear Additives: These additives form a protective layer on the surfaces, reducing
wear during boundary lubrication when the oil film is too thin.
 Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives: In high-pressure contacts, these additives help the oil
film withstand the pressure and prevent metal-to-metal contact, reducing the risk of scuffing
or seizure.
 Viscosity Modifiers: These additives help to maintain the optimal viscosity of the oil across
a range of temperatures, ensuring that the oil film maintains an appropriate thickness
regardless of thermal conditions.

6. Oil Film and Surface Integrity

A well-formed oil film is vital for maintaining the integrity of the mating surfaces. The continuous
presence of the oil film helps prevent surface damage due to oxidation, corrosion, or direct
mechanical contact. For example:

 Corrosion Prevention: The oil film acts as a barrier to moisture and contaminants,
preventing corrosion on the mating surfaces. This is especially important in environments
with high humidity or exposure to corrosive substances.
 Prevention of Oxidation: In high-temperature applications, the oil film helps prevent
oxidation of the metal surfaces. Oxidation can lead to the formation of hard, abrasive
particles that accelerate wear.

7. Oil Film Breakdown and Its Consequences

Oil film breakdown occurs when the oil cannot maintain an effective barrier due to extreme pressure,
high temperature, or contamination. This can lead to:

 Increased Friction: As the oil film breaks down, metal-to-metal contact can occur, leading
to a sharp increase in friction and wear.
 Surface Damage: The loss of the oil film exposes the surfaces to direct contact, leading to
pitting, scoring, and increased surface roughness.
 Failure of Components: In extreme cases, oil film breakdown can lead to the failure of
critical components, such as bearings, gears, and camshafts, often resulting in costly repairs
or complete system failure.

8. Oil Film and Wear Mechanisms

Oil films influence the wear mechanisms that occur at mating surfaces. In a well-lubricated system
with a sufficient oil film, wear is primarily governed by fluid film lubrication rather than direct
surface contact. However, in boundary lubrication, wear mechanisms like adhesive wear (material
transfer) and abrasive wear (material removal) become more prominent. The oil film reduces both of
these forms of wear by reducing friction and limiting direct asperity contact.
9. Advances in Oil Film Technology

Recent advancements in lubricant technology have led to the development of oils with improved
film strength, wear resistance, and stability. Some examples include:

 Synthetic Oils: These oils have superior stability at high temperatures and provide better oil
film retention.
 Nanoparticle Additives: These additives can improve oil film strength and reduce wear by
forming protective layers at the surface level.

These advances are crucial for high-performance applications such as aerospace, automotive
engines, and heavy machinery, where oil films must operate under extreme conditions.

 Design Values and Procedures in Engineering

When designing mechanical systems, components, or processes, it’s essential to follow structured
procedures and use appropriate design values to ensure reliability, efficiency, safety, and cost-
effectiveness. These values and procedures form the foundation for making informed decisions
throughout the design lifecycle. Let’s break down the essential design values and the general
procedures involved in engineering design.

 Safety Factors

One of the key design values is ensuring the safety of the end-users and the system. Safety factors
are used to account for uncertainties in material properties, loading conditions, and potential
variations in the manufacturing process. A safety factor is typically applied to the expected loads and
stresses that a component or system will experience. For example:

 Structural components may have safety factors of 1.5 to 3 depending on the criticality of
the application.
 Dynamic or high-impact systems (e.g., engines, aerospace parts) may use higher safety
factors to account for unpredictable stresses.

 Material Properties

Material selection is a fundamental part of engineering design. The choice of material affects the
strength, durability, and performance of the system. Key material properties include:

 Tensile strength
 Yield strength
 Hardness
 Fatigue resistance
  Thermal conductivity
 Corrosion resistance

Each material has its limitations, and understanding these properties helps designers choose the best
material for the specific application, ensuring optimal performance and longevity.

 Efficiency

Efficiency is another critical design value, particularly in systems where energy usage or resource
consumption is a concern. Efficient designs reduce energy losses, waste, and operational costs. Key
considerations include:
 Mechanical efficiency (minimizing friction, ensuring smooth motion, etc.)
 Energy efficiency (such as in power generation, motors, or HVAC systems)
 Resource efficiency (efficient use of materials in manufacturing to reduce waste)

 Reliability

Reliability refers to the ability of a system or component to perform its intended function
consistently over time without failure. Key factors include:

 Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) for systems that will be in continuous operation.
 Redundancy built into safety-critical systems, such as aircraft or medical devices.
 Durability and fatigue resistance for parts under cyclic loading or wear.

 Cost-effectiveness

Cost is always an important design value, especially in competitive markets. The balance between
performance, material choice, and manufacturing costs must be considered. For example:

 Initial cost vs. lifecycle cost: Sometimes, a higher initial cost might be justified if it results
in lower operating or maintenance costs.
 Manufacturing efficiency: Optimizing designs for manufacturability can significantly
reduce production costs.

 Environmental Impact

Environmental considerations are becoming increasingly important in engineering design. These can
include:
 Sustainability: Using renewable materials and energy-efficient processes.
 Recyclability: Designing products that can be easily disassembled and recycled at the end of
their life.
 Pollution and emissions: Designing systems to minimize harmful emissions, whether
gaseous or particulate.

Procedures in Engineering Design

1. Define the Problem and Requirements

 The first step in any engineering design process is to define the problem clearly and identify
the requirements of the system. This involves:
o Understanding the primary function the design must fulfill.
o Gathering data on constraints (size, cost, material, environmental impact, etc.).
o Defining performance criteria (e.g., load-bearing capacity, speed, power efficiency).
2. Conceptual Design

Once the problem is defined, the next step is to explore different conceptual solutions. This
phase involves:

o Brainstorming ideas and sketching potential solutions.

o Feasibility analysis: Quickly assessing the practicality of each concept considering
factors such as cost, material availability, manufacturing capabilities, etc.
o Design iteration: Refining concepts based on feedback and evaluation.

3. Detailed Design and Analysis

This phase focuses on developing detailed designs based on the selected concept. The
procedures include:

o CAD modeling: Creating 3D models of the design.

o Stress analysis: Using finite element analysis (FEA) to simulate and evaluate how
the design will perform under various loads.
o Thermal analysis: Evaluating how heat will affect the design, including cooling or
insulation requirements.
o Design for manufacturability (DFM): Ensuring that the design can be efficiently
produced within the budget and time constraints.

4. Prototyping and Testing

Before committing to full-scale production, it is essential to create a prototype or a small-

scale model of the design. This allows designers to:

o Test the functionality: Ensure the design meets the performance and safety
requirements.
o Identify potential flaws: Detect any issues in material behavior, manufacturing, or
operational performance.
o Iterate the design: Based on test results, the design may undergo revisions to address
shortcomings.
5. Final Design and Production Planning

Once the prototype is validated, the final design can be completed. This includes:
 o Finalizing specifications, including material selection, dimensions, tolerances, and
finishes.
o Preparing production plans for scaling up to manufacturing, including supply chain
coordination, tool design, and production schedules.
o Ensuring quality control procedures are in place for consistency and reliability.

6. Manufacturing and Assembly

This phase involves turning the design into a tangible product. Key procedures include:

o Manufacturing: The actual fabrication of components, which may include casting,

machining, molding, or 3D printing, depending on the design.
o Assembly: The process of assembling the individual components into a complete
system.
o Quality Assurance: Throughout the manufacturing process, inspection and testing
are carried out to ensure the product meets the design requirements.

7. Testing and Validation in Operation

After the product is manufactured and assembled, the final phase is operational testing. This
phase ensures that the product performs as expected in real-world conditions. It may involve:
o Field testing in operational environments to assess performance.
o Long-term reliability testing to confirm the durability of components and systems
over time.
o User feedback: Gathering insights from users to further improve the design if
necessary.

8. Maintenance and Feedback for Future Designs

Once a product is in the market or operational, ongoing maintenance becomes crucial.

Monitoring the product’s performance over time can lead to design improvements.
Procedures for this phase include:

o Failure analysis: In case of breakdowns, performing root cause analysis to

understand the failure mode and improve future designs.
o Design updates: Based on operational experience and feedback, minor modifications
or updates may be made to the product to improve its performance or extend its
lifecycle

 Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear is one of the most common wear mechanisms that occurs when two surfaces in
relative motion come into contact, leading to material transfer or degradation due to localized
bonding between asperities (microscopic surface peaks) of the surfaces. In this type of wear, the
surfaces "adhere" to each other at the points of contact due to the pressure and heat generated during
motion. When the surfaces move relative to each other, parts of the material may break away and
transfer from one surface to another, leading to surface damage.

Mechanism of adhesion:

Mechanism of Adhesive Wear

1. Surface Contact and Asperity Interaction\

When two materials come into contact under load, only the asperities of the surfaces touch
initially. As the load increases, these asperities undergo localized plastic deformation due to the
high contact pressure, causing the asperities to stick or bond together at certain points. The heat
generated by the friction accelerates this bonding.

2. Material Transfer

When one surface moves relative to the other, the bonded asperities may be sheared off. This results
in the material being transferred from one surface to the other, leaving behind grooves, pits, or a loss
of material on the original surface. The transferred material can cause further damage, creating a
vicious cycle of wear. This material may also cause abrasive wear on the counter surface if it
becomes detached in the form of particles.

3. Heat Generation

The frictional heat that builds up during relative motion can exacerbate the adhesive wear process by
increasing the material’s temperature. This can lower the material's strength and hardness, making it
more susceptible to deformation and transfer. In some cases, extreme temperature can also cause the
material to melt or soften, further promoting adhesive wear.

4. Surface Degradation

Over time, the continuous adhesive interaction leads to significant degradation of the surfaces
involved. This results in the formation of grooves, pits, or scratches on the surface. In severe cases,
adhesive wear can lead to the formation of scuffing or galling, which can result in catastrophic
failure of the component.

Factors Influencing Adhesive Wear

1. Material Properties
o Hardness: Softer materials are more susceptible to adhesive wear because they deform more
easily under pressure, leading to bonding and material transfer.
o Surface Roughness: Smoother surfaces have more intimate contact at the asperities,
increasing the likelihood of adhesive wear. Conversely, rougher surfaces may have fewer
points of contact.
o Ductility: Ductile materials, which can deform more easily, are more prone to adhesive wear
than brittle materials.
 2. Load
The applied load plays a significant role in the occurrence of adhesive wear. Higher loads
lead to higher contact pressure, increasing the likelihood of asperity bonding and material
transfer. In high-load conditions, the pressure at contact points can exceed the material's yield
strength, causing plastic deformation and adhesive wear.

3. Temperature
Higher temperatures can accelerate adhesive wear because heat softens the material and
reduces its resistance to deformation. Additionally, elevated temperatures can cause
oxidation, which may create sticky or reactive surfaces that further contribute to material
transfer.

4. Speed of Motion
The relative speed between two contacting surfaces influences the rate of heat generation.
Higher speeds can cause more heat to be generated, leading to increased adhesive wear.
However, at very high speeds, other forms of wear (such as abrasive wear) may also become
significant.

5. Lubrication
The presence of lubrication can significantly reduce the occurrence of adhesive wear by
creating a protective oil film between the surfaces, preventing direct contact. Inadequate
lubrication can lead to boundary lubrication conditions, where the oil film becomes too thin,
and adhesive wear becomes dominant. Extreme pressure (EP) additives in lubricants are
often used to reduce adhesive wear by forming a protective film on the surface.

6. Environmental Factors

 Contaminants: Foreign particles, such as dust or sand, can act as abrasives and accelerate
adhesive wear.
 Humidity and Corrosive Elements: Moisture and chemicals can contribute to oxidation or
corrosion of surfaces, which can lead to increased friction and the development of adhesive
wear.

 Corrosion Wear

Corrosive wear refers to the wear of materials that occurs due to the combined action of mechanical
forces and a corrosive environment. In this type of wear, the surface material undergoes chemical or
electrochemical reactions with its environment, leading to material degradation and surface damage.
Corrosive wear is a significant concern in environments where moisture, acids, salts, or other
corrosive agents are present. Corrosive wear is particularly relevant in applications where
components are subjected to both mechanical stress and corrosive conditions, such as in marine
environments, chemical processing industries, and even in automotive engines. This wear
mechanism can accelerate material degradation and reduce the lifespan of mechanical components,
leading to premature failure.
Mechanism of Corrosive Wear

Corrosive wear involves a combination of mechanical abrasion and chemical or electrochemical

reactions at the interface of the contacting surfaces. The process can be understood in the following
stages:

1. Chemical Reaction: In the presence of a corrosive medium, the materials on the contacting
surfaces can react chemically with the environment, leading to the formation of corrosion products.
For example: - In the presence of water, oxygen, or salts, the material may form oxides, hydroxides,
or sulfides on the surface. If the material is a metal, such as steel or aluminum, the reaction with
oxygen may result in the formation of an oxide layer (rust in the case of steel).

2. Mechanical Stress: The mechanical forces (such as friction and sliding) acting on the surfaces can
cause localized wear, breaking the protective corrosion products and exposing fresh material to the
corrosive environment. This leads to the continuation of the chemical reaction and further material
degradation.

3. Surface Degradation: Over time, the combination of corrosion and mechanical wear leads to the
deterioration of the surface. The removal of the protective oxide or corrosion layer, coupled with
continuous sliding or contact, allows for deeper penetration of the corrosive agents, leading to:

- Pitting: The formation of small holes or cavities on the surface.

- Grooving: The creation of grooves or channels as material is removed due to the corrosion-
accelerated wear.
- Surface Cracking: In severe cases, corrosion can lead to the formation of cracks on the surface,
leading to material failure.

4. Electrochemical Interaction: In the case of metals, especially when they come into contact with
each other in the presence of a corrosive environment (e.g., salty water), an electrochemical reaction
can occur. One material may act as the anode (undergoing oxidation) and the other as the cathode
(undergoing reduction). This leads to a galvanic corrosion effect, which accelerates the wear process
at the anode

Factors Influencing Corrosive Wear

1. Material Properties: - Corrosion Resistance: Materials with good corrosion resistance, such as
stainless steel or titanium, are less susceptible to corrosive wear. - Hardness: Harder materials are
generally more resistant to wear, but in corrosive environments, softer materials may wear away
faster as corrosion reduces their resistance to mechanical forces.

2. Corrosive Environment: - Chemicals: The presence of specific chemicals, such as acids (e.g.,
sulfuric acid), salts (e.g., sodium chloride in marine environments), or gases (e.g., sulfur dioxide),
can significantly accelerate corrosive wear by reacting with the material at the surface. – Moisture,
Temperature, pH: Acidic or alkaline environments can influence the corrosion rate. Acidic
environments often lead to more aggressive corrosion.

3. Mechanical Forces: - Sliding Speed: High sliding speeds may lead to higher frictional forces and
more aggressive wear, which can break through any corrosion-resistant film and expose fresh
material to the corrosive environment. - Contact Pressure: High contact pressure can cause deeper
penetration of corrosion products,

4. Lubrication: - Lack of Lubrication: In the absence of lubrication, or when the lubrication film is
insufficient, friction increases, leading to higher temperatures and mechanical wear, which can
exacerbate corrosive wear.

 Surface Fatigue

Surface fatigue refers to the progressive material degradation that occurs on the surface of a
component due to repeated cyclic loading. This type of wear is particularly important in tribology, as
it is often encountered in applications involving rolling, sliding, or rotating contacts. The repeated
loading causes the material to undergo microscopic deformations, leading to the formation of cracks
and eventual surface failure.

Surface fatigue is a key concern in many engineering systems, such as gears, bearings, shafts, and
other mechanical components subjected to dynamic loading. It plays a crucial role in the failure of
these components over time, especially when they operate under high stress and in environments
with insufficient lubrication or where contamination may accelerate the wear process.

Mechanism of Surface Fatigue

Surface fatigue is a complex phenomenon that involves several stages. The process can be
summarized as follows:

1. Initial Microplastic Deformation

When a component is subjected to cyclic loading, the material at the contact surface
undergoes small, localized plastic deformations. These deformations cause the material to
yield and form microscopic surface asperities that can become the initiation sites for cracks.
2. Crack Nucleation
As the cyclic loading continues, small cracks begin to form at the surface. These cracks are
often initiated at points where the material experiences high shear stresses or where there are
surface defects, such as scratches, pits, or inclusions. Over time, these cracks may grow
larger and propagate into the material.
3. Crack Propagation
Once cracks are initiated, they grow under the influence of continued cyclic loading. The
propagation of these cracks is often driven by the alternating tensile and compressive stresses
that occur during the loading cycles. As the cracks grow deeper into the material, the surface
layer becomes more susceptible to failure.
4. Spalling and Surface Damage
As the cracks propagate and coalesce, pieces of the surface material can break off, leading to
a process known as spalling. This is characterized by the removal of small fragments of
material from the surface, creating a rough and damaged surface that can further accelerate
the wear process. The accumulation of wear debris can lead to increased friction, which may
exacerbate the fatigue process.

Factors Influencing Surface Fatigue

Several factors can influence the severity and rate of surface fatigue:

1. Material Properties
o Hardness: Materials with higher hardness are generally more resistant to surface
fatigue because they can withstand higher stresses before yielding. However,
excessively hard materials may become more brittle, making them prone to crack
formation under cyclic loading.
o Tensile Strength: Materials with higher tensile strength can better resist crack
propagation, delaying the onset of surface fatigue.
o Microstructure: The microstructure of a material, including the presence of grain
boundaries, inclusions, and phase transformations, can significantly influence its
resistance to surface fatigue. Fine-grained materials tend to resist fatigue better than
coarse-grained ones.
2. Contact Conditions
o Contact Stress: Higher contact stresses (such as those encountered in gears or rolling
contacts) increase the likelihood of surface fatigue. High contact stresses can cause
localized plastic deformation and accelerate crack initiation.
o Surface Roughness: A rougher surface tends to concentrate stresses at the peaks of
asperities, which can lead to earlier crack initiation. Conversely, smoother surfaces
reduce stress concentrations and may improve resistance to fatigue.
o Sliding vs. Rolling Contact: Rolling contacts, such as those in bearings or gears,
tend to generate less friction and wear compared to sliding contacts, which may be
more prone to surface fatigue due to higher friction and shear stresses.
3. Lubrication
o Presence of Lubricant: Proper lubrication plays a crucial role in reducing the effects
of surface fatigue. A good lubricant forms a protective film between the contacting
surfaces, reducing friction and wear, and dissipating heat generated during contact.
Insufficient lubrication can increase friction, leading to higher contact stresses and
faster crack propagation.
o Lubricant Quality: The quality and type of lubricant are also important. Lubricants
with additives that reduce friction, such as anti-wear agents, can help improve surface
fatigue resistance. Contaminants in the lubricant can accelerate the wear process by
increasing abrasive wear or promoting corrosion.
4. Operating Conditions
o Load Cycles: The number and magnitude of load cycles play a critical role in surface
fatigue. Higher cyclic loading or frequent loading-unloading cycles can accelerate the
initiation and propagation of cracks.
o Temperature: Elevated temperatures can reduce the material’s hardness and increase
its susceptibility to surface fatigue. Conversely, extremely low temperatures may
make the material brittle, increasing the likelihood of crack initiation under lower
stresses.

Preventing Surface Fatigue

Several strategies can be employed to prevent or minimize surface fatigue:

1. Material Selection
Choosing materials with high tensile strength, toughness, and good resistance to fatigue is
 critical in preventing surface fatigue. For example, hardened steels, alloys with fine
microstructures, and composite materials are often used in components exposed to cyclic
loading.
2. Surface Treatments
o Case Hardening: Processes like carburizing or nitriding can harden the surface
layer of a material, improving its resistance to surface fatigue. The hard surface can
better withstand cyclic loading, delaying crack initiation.
o Shot Peening: This process involves bombarding the surface of the material with
small balls to create compressive stresses at the surface, which can help prevent crack
initiation and delay the onset of fatigue.
o Coatings: The application of hard coatings (such as chromium or titanium nitrides)
can improve surface fatigue resistance by providing a protective layer that reduces
friction and wear.
3. Improving Lubrication
Ensuring proper lubrication is one of the most effective ways to reduce the effects of surface
fatigue. High-quality lubricants with anti-fatigue properties can significantly improve
component lifespan by reducing friction and heat generation during operation.
4. Optimizing Design
o Stress Distribution: Designing components to minimize stress concentrations (e.g.,
avoiding sharp edges or notches) can help reduce the likelihood of surface fatigue.
o Load Distribution: Distributing the load more evenly across the contact area can
reduce the cyclic stresses acting on the surface, lowering the risk of crack initiation.
5. Regular Maintenance and Inspection
Regular maintenance, such as cleaning and lubricating components, as well as periodic
inspections for early signs of fatigue (e.g., cracks or pitting), can help detect surface fatigue
before it leads to failure.

 Different contacts

In tribology, contact refers to the interaction between two surfaces in relative motion or under load.
The nature of these contacts greatly influences the wear, friction, and lubrication characteristics of
the system. Different types of contacts can be categorized based on how the surfaces come into
contact, the type of motion involved, and the resulting stress distribution. Below are the primary
types of contacts commonly encountered in tribological systems:

1. Point Contact: Surfaces touch at a single point, typically in spherical or small-scale rolling
contacts, such as in ball bearings.
2. Line Contact: Surfaces are in contact along a line, seen in cylindrical rolling elements, like
in roller bearings.
3. Area Contact: The contact happens over a broad area, often in flat surfaces or when two
large surfaces slide against each other.
4. Rolling Contact: One surface rolls over the other, as seen in bearings, wheels, and rolling
element applications, with minimal sliding between the surfaces.
5. Sliding Contact: One surface slides over another, which typically generates higher friction
and wear, such as in brake pads or clutch systems.
Each type of contact affects the wear, friction, and lubrication conditions in a system, impacting its
efficiency and longevity.

The type of contact in a tribological system directly influences the wear, friction, and lubrication
conditions experienced by the materials in contact. Understanding these different contact types is
crucial for optimizing component performance and preventing failures due to excessive wear,
fatigue, or material degradation. In engineering design, choosing the appropriate type of contact,
material, and lubrication method can help extend the lifespan of components and reduce
maintenance costs.

 Dynamic Contact Stresses,

 Dynamic contact stresses are the varying forces exerted on two surfaces in motion when
they come into contact. Unlike static contact stresses, which are constant and uniform,
dynamic contact stresses fluctuate over time due to the movement and relative velocities
between the contacting surfaces. These stresses are common in mechanical systems that
experience cyclic or impact loading, such as bearings, gears, cam followers, and rolling
elements. The dynamic nature of these stresses significantly influences the wear, fatigue, and
overall performance of mechanical components.
 When two surfaces come into contact dynamically, the pressure distribution across the
contact area is not uniform. Instead, it tends to be highly concentrated in specific regions,
typically where asperities (microscopic peaks) on the surfaces meet. The peak contact
stresses in these regions can be significantly higher than those experienced under static
loading conditions. These high localized stresses can lead to plastic deformation, crack
initiation, and ultimately, surface failure. Over time, the accumulation of these stresses can
result in surface wear, pitting, or even spalling of the material.
 The contact geometry between the surfaces plays a crucial role in determining the
magnitude and distribution of dynamic contact stresses. In rolling contact applications like
ball bearings or roller bearings, the curvature of the surfaces (such as the balls and raceways)
influences how the load is transmitted through the contact area. The stress distribution in
rolling contact is often more concentrated at the point of contact between the rolling element
and the raceway. For gears, the dynamic stresses are highly influenced by the tooth profile,
tooth contact ratio, and the load distribution during meshing. These geometrical factors
significantly affect the stress levels in gear teeth and the wear they experience.
 The speed and relative velocity between the surfaces also affect dynamic contact stresses. In
high-speed applications, such as in turbines, automotive engines, or high-performance
machinery, the relative velocity between contacting surfaces increases, which in turn
increases the inertial forces at play. The faster the surfaces move relative to each other, the
higher the forces they exert on each other upon contact. These rapid forces can create
significant spikes in stress levels, especially when combined with changes in direction, such
as in oscillatory or impact loading. This is why dynamic contact stresses in high-speed
applications are often much greater than in low-speed, steady-state conditions.
 In addition to velocity, lubrication plays a critical role in influencing dynamic contact
stresses. When adequate lubrication is present, it forms a thin film between the contacting
surfaces, which helps to distribute the load more evenly, reducing the peak contact stresses.
Proper lubrication can also minimize friction and wear by preventing metal-to-metal contact.
However, if the lubricant film is too thin or breaks down under high loads or speeds, the
surfaces may experience direct contact, leading to higher friction and increased dynamic
 stresses. This is particularly problematic in high-load applications, where the stresses can be
magnified, causing faster wear and possible surface damage.
 The material properties of the surfaces in contact also determine how well they can
withstand dynamic contact stresses. Materials with high hardness, wear resistance, and
fatigue strength are better equipped to endure dynamic stresses without experiencing
premature failure. However, even the toughest materials can suffer from fatigue if the
dynamic stresses are high enough and occur over a long period. Conversely, softer materials
may deform plastically or wear out more quickly under dynamic loading, leading to failure if
not properly managed. Material selection, therefore, plays a significant role in the
performance of components subjected to dynamic contact stresses.
 Finally, dynamic contact stresses can lead to a number of failure modes in mechanical
systems, including surface fatigue, pitting, and spalling. As the contact stress exceeds the
material's ability to resist deformation, microscopic cracks can form at the contact points.
Over time, these cracks propagate, leading to larger surface defects that can significantly
impact performance. In rolling element bearings, for example, surface fatigue can result in
pitting or spalling of the raceways, reducing the bearing's service life and causing noise or
vibration. In gears, dynamic contact stresses can lead to tooth wear and eventually
catastrophic tooth failure if not properly managed. Understanding and managing dynamic
contact stresses is crucial for ensuring the reliability and longevity of mechanical systems.

 Surface fatigue failures

Surface fatigue failures occur when the material's surface undergoes repeated cyclic loading, leading
to the initiation and propagation of cracks, which eventually result in material breakdown. Here is a
point-wise summary of surface fatigue failures:

1. Cyclic Loading: Surface fatigue failures are caused by repeated loading and unloading, often
at high frequencies, leading to alternating tensile and compressive stresses in the material.
2. Crack Initiation: The first sign of surface fatigue is the initiation of microcracks at regions
of high stress, typically at asperities or surface defects. These cracks begin to form at the
surface or subsurface and grow over time.
3. Stress Concentration: Surface irregularities, such as scratches, dents, or material inclusions,
cause stress concentration points where cracks can initiate. These concentrated stresses can
lead to early crack formation.
4. Crack Propagation: As cyclic loading continues, the cracks grow progressively deeper into
the material, especially under conditions of high stress or inadequate lubrication. The cracks
propagate along the material's surface or beneath it.
5. Surface Spalling or Pitting: Once the cracks coalesce or reach a critical size, pieces of
material may break off from the surface in a process known as spalling or pitting. This
damage significantly weakens the material.
6. Influence of Load and Material Properties: The rate of fatigue failure depends on the
magnitude of the applied load, the material's hardness, and its fatigue strength. Materials with
higher tensile strength are more resistant to surface fatigue, while softer materials tend to fail
sooner.
 7. Impact of Lubrication: Inadequate lubrication or contamination can increase friction,
resulting in higher surface stresses and accelerated surface fatigue. Proper lubrication helps
to reduce direct metal-to-metal contact and mitigate the effects of fatigue.
8. Surface Finish and Hardness: The surface finish plays a significant role in fatigue
resistance. Rougher surfaces are more prone to initiating cracks, while hardened or treated
surfaces (e.g., carburized or nitrided) improve resistance to surface fatigue.
9. Temperature Effects: Elevated temperatures can reduce material hardness and increase the
susceptibility to surface fatigue, as the material becomes more prone to plastic deformation
under cyclic loading.
10. Failure Mode: Surface fatigue failures can result in significant performance degradation,
including reduced load-carrying capacity, increased noise, vibration, and eventual
catastrophic failure of components like gears, bearings, and shafts.

 Surface fatigue strength

Surface fatigue strength refers to the ability of a material's surface to withstand cyclic loading
without initiating cracks or undergoing failure. It is a critical property for components subjected to
repeated stresses, such as gears, bearings, and shafts, which experience dynamic loads during
operation. Here’s an overview of the factors influencing surface fatigue strength:

1. Material Properties: The inherent properties of the material, including hardness, toughness,
and tensile strength, influence surface fatigue strength. Harder materials tend to resist surface
fatigue better because they can withstand higher stresses before deformation occurs.
2. Surface Finish: A smooth surface finish can significantly improve surface fatigue strength.
Surface roughness creates stress concentration points, which serve as initiation sites for
cracks. Polished or ground surfaces are more resistant to fatigue compared to rough or poorly
finished surfaces.
3. Surface Hardness: A hardened surface, often achieved through processes like carburizing,
nitriding, or shot peening, can significantly enhance fatigue strength. Harder surfaces resist
crack initiation and propagation, increasing the material's resistance to surface fatigue.
4. Loading Conditions: The magnitude, frequency, and direction of the applied cyclic load
have a major impact on surface fatigue strength. Higher loads and more frequent cycles tend
to reduce fatigue life by promoting crack initiation and growth. Reversed loading (where the
load alternates in direction) tends to be more damaging than unidirectional loading.
5. Residual Stresses: Residual stresses from manufacturing processes, such as quenching or
welding, can either enhance or reduce surface fatigue strength. Compressive residual stresses
(e.g., from shot peening) can help prevent crack formation and extend fatigue life, while
tensile residual stresses can increase the risk of crack initiation.
6. Lubrication and Surface Coatings: Proper lubrication reduces friction and minimizes wear,
thus protecting the surface from fatigue. Additionally, surface coatings like nitriding, hard
chrome plating, or DLC (diamond-like carbon) coatings can enhance surface fatigue strength
by providing a harder, wear-resistant layer.
7. Temperature Effects: Elevated temperatures can reduce the material's strength and make it
more susceptible to surface fatigue. Heat can soften the material, reducing its ability to
withstand cyclic loading, while lower temperatures can increase material brittleness, leading
to faster crack propagation.
8. Environment: Environmental factors, such as the presence of corrosive elements or
contaminants, can affect surface fatigue strength. Corrosion can weaken the surface, making
 it more prone to fatigue failure. For instance, in the presence of moisture, some materials
may experience corrosion fatigue, where the combined effects of cyclic stress and corrosion
lead to rapid failure.
9. Component Design: The design of components can influence their surface fatigue strength.
Sharp corners or notches create stress concentration zones, reducing the material's ability to
resist surface fatigue. Smooth transitions and fillets help distribute the stresses more evenly
and improve fatigue resistance.
10. Fatigue Limit: The fatigue limit is a critical property when assessing surface fatigue
strength. It refers to the maximum stress amplitude below which a material can withstand an
infinite number of load cycles without failure. For many materials, the fatigue limit is a key
determinant of their performance in cyclic loading applications.