MASENO UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS 2023/2024

SECOND YEAR SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS

FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
APPLIED STATISTICS, ACTUARIAL SCIENCE,
MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS AND
ECONOMICS, BACHELOR OF SCIENCE, AND BACHELOR
OF EDUCATION WITH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(MAIN CAMPUS)

MMA 208: INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS

Date: Xth XX 2024 Time:X.XX-X.XX

INSTRUCTIONS:

ˆ Answer at least one question in each section.

ˆ More instructions on the answer booklet.

MASENO UNIVERSITY ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED

QUESTION 1. (COMPULSORY) (30 marks)
(a) Let A = {x ∈ R : x2 + 2 = 0}, B = (0, 7), C = [0, 4], D = [7, ∞) and E = {x ∈ N :
x < 8}. [3 marks]
Find:
i. A
ii. B ∩ C
iii. C ∪ D ∩ E

Solution:

i ∅✓

ii (0, 4]✓

iii {7}✓

(b) Consider the following functions defined on R,

f (x) = tan x, g(x) = e−x , h(x) = x2

Give the range of each of the above functions. [3 marks]

Solution:
R✓, (0, 1]✓ and [0, ∞)✓ respectively
√
(c) Show that 7 is not a rational number. [4 marks]

Solution:
Suppose on the contrary that there exists p, q ∈ Z such that (p, q) = 1 and
p
√ 2

q
= 7. ✓ Then pq2 = 7. ⇒ p2 = 7q 2 , ⇒ 7|p2 , ⇒ 7|p. ✓ Now, there exists an
integer m such that p = 7m.✓ p2 = 7q 2 can now be rewritten as (7m)2 = 7q 2 , ⇒
7m2 = q 2 . Similarly, 7|q. ✓ This contradicts the fact that p and q are coprime.
Hence, such integers do not exist.

(d) Let S = [−10, −1) ∪ (1, 2) ∪ (2, 3) ∪ {3}. Find: [4 marks]

(i) The set of limit points of S

Solution:
S ′ = [−10, −1] ∪ [1, 3]✓

(ii) Boundary points of S

Solution:
δS = {−10, −1, 1, 2, 3}✓

(iii) Closure of S

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 Solution:
S̄ = [−10, −1] ∪ [1, 3]✓

(iv) Interior of S

Solution:
Int(S) = (−10, −1) ∪ (1, 3)

(e) i. Define a neighbourhood of a point x ∈ R. [2 marks]

Solution:
A set N ⊆ R is called a neighbourhood of a point x is there is an open
interval I✓ such that x ∈ I ⊆ N .✓

ii. Show that the set [0,1] is not a neighbourhood of the points 0 and 1. [2 marks]

Solution:
For any ϵ > 0, however small,✓ (0 − ϵ, 0 + ϵ) and 1 − ϵ, 1 + ϵ) are not subsets
of [0,1].✓

(f) Show that lim 7x − 3 = 18. [4 marks]

x→3

Solution:
Suppose ϵ > 0 is given, we have to show how δ > 0 can be chosen such that
|(7x − 3) − 18| < ϵ whenever |x − 3| < δ.✓ It is clear that |(7x − 3) − 18| =
|7x − 21| = 7|x − 3| < ϵ.✓ So that |x − 3| < 7ϵ = δ.✓ So for any x satisfying
|x − 3| < δ we have |(7x − 3) − 18| < ϵ.✓

(g) Let x, y ∈ R. Prove the following statements:

i. If |x| < δ, δ > 0, then −δ < x < δ. [2 marks]

Solution:
Observe that |x| = max{−x, x}✓ ⇒ −x ≤ δ ⇒ −δ < x and x ≤ δ✓ and
thus −δ < x < δ.

ii. If |x − y| < δ, ∀δ > 0, then x = y. [3 marks]

Solution:
Observe that −δ < x − y < δ.✓ Thus y < x + δ and x < y + δ✓ This implies
that y ≤ x and x ≤ y.✓ Which implies that x = y.

QUESTION 2. (20 marks)

(a) Write any 4 nontrivial partitions of the set A = {a, b, c.d, e, f }. [4 marks]

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 Solution:
Award ✓ to each of the first 4 correct partitions given.

(b) Define an equivalence relation R on a set X = {x ∈ N|x ≤ 20} by xRy if and only
if 4 divides x − y. Find the equivalence classes. [Hint: An integer n divides another
integer m if there exists k ∈ Z such that m = nk]. [4 marks]

Solution:

(i) 1̄ = {1, 5, 9, 13, 17}✓

(ii) 2̄ = {2, 6, 10, 14, 18}✓

(iii) 3̄ = {3, 7, 11, 15, 19}✓

(iv) 4̄ = {4, 8, 12, 16, 20}✓

(c) A function f from A to B is a rule that assigns to every element of A a unique

element in B. Define a relation R on a set X = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by
R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1)}.
Determine whether or not R defines a function. [2 marks]

Solution:
Every element of X is assigned to one and only one element of X and hence R
defines a function.✓2

(d) Let E denote the set of all even numbers and f : E → Z defined by
x+2
f (x) = .
2
Show that f is onto. [3 marks]

Solution:
To show that f is onto, we choose an arbitrary element w ∈ Z and show that
has a preimage, say e ∈ E such that f (e) = w.✓ We observe that
e+2
f (e) = = w, ⇒ e + 2 = 2w✓
2
⇒ e = 2(w − 1) ∈ E.✓

This implies that f is onto and thus a bijection.

(e) Let {An }n∈N be a collection of sets defined by

 
1 1
An = 1 − , 1 + .
n n
Find

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 S
i. n∈N An [2 marks]

Solution:
S
n∈N An = (0.5, 1.5)

T
ii. n∈N An [1 marks]

Solution:
T
n∈N An = {1}

(f) Show that the open interval (a, b), a, b ∈ R is an open set. [4 marks]

Solution:
We need to show that A = (a, b) is a nbd of each of its points for a, b ∈ R. Let
x ∈ A. We show that A is a nbd of x. In particular we show that there is an
open interval Ix such that x ∈ Ix ⊆ A.✓ Let 0 < ϵ < min(x − a, b − x).✓ Then
Ix = (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) is such that x ∈ Ix ⊆ A for each x ∈ A.✓ Thus A is a nbd of
each x ∈ A and hence A is an open set.✓

QUESTION 3. (20 marks)

 n
(a) Let A = n+1 : n ∈ N . Clearly sup(A) = 1. By definition of supremum, for each
ϵ > 0, there is an x0 ∈ A such that 1 − ϵ < x0 < 1. Given ϵ = 0.0001, Find an
x0 ∈ A that satisfies the condition 1 − ϵ < x0 < 1. [4 marks]

Solution:
n
We use the fact that x0 = n+1
, and
n
1 − ϵ < x0 < 1 ⇔ 1 − ϵ < x0 = <1
n+1
n n+1 1
⇔1 − ϵ < ⇔ < ✓
n+1 n 1−ϵ
1 1 1 1
⇔1 + < ⇔ < − 1✓
n 1−ϵ n 1−ϵ
1 1 ϵ
⇔ < −1=
n 1−ϵ 1−ϵ
1 10000
⇔n > − 1✓, for ϵ = 0.0001 ⇒ n > 9999. Let x0 = ✓
ϵ 10001

(b) Let
S = r ∈ Q : r > 0 and r2 < 11


Show that for each p ∈ S, there is a q ∈ S, such that q > p. [4 marks]

Solution:

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 Observe that p2 < 11✓. Thus p2 + 11p < 11 + 11p. This implies that

11(1 + p)
p< ∈ Q.✓
(p + 11)
11(1+p)
Now, let q = (p+11)
. Clearly q > p. Now we need to show that q 2 < 11. To see
this,
2
110(p2 − 11)

2 11(1 + p)
q − 11 = − 11 = < 0✓2 since q 2 − 11 < 0.
p + 11 (p + 11)2

Thus q 2 < 11.

(c) Use mathematical induction to show that 3 divides n3 + 2n for all n ∈ N.[4 marks]

Solution:
Let P (n) denote the property that 3|n3 + 2n.
When n = 1, then n3 + 2n = 13 + 2(1) = 3. Since 3|3, then P(1) is true.✓
Now, suppose that P(k) is true for k ∈ N. We need to show that P(k + 1) is also
true. Now,

(k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1) = k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 + 2k + 2.✓

Rearranging, the above, we obtain

(k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1) = (k 3 + 2k) + 3(k 2 + k + 1).✓

Since 3 divides both terms of the summation, we conclude that 3|(k+1)3 +2(k+1).
Thus P(k + 1) is true.✓

(d) Show that there is no rational number whose square is 24. [4 marks]

Solution:
√ p
Let p/q = 24 such that gcd(p, q) = 1. Observe that 4 < q
< 5. Then

4q < p < 5q, ⇒ 0 < p − 4q < q✓

Consider,
√ p
24(p − 4q) = (p − 4q) Not an integer✓
q
2
p p p2
But, (p − 4q) = − 4p = 2 · q − 4p = 24q − 4p ∈ Z✓
q q q
This is a contradiction and thus such p and q do not exist.✓

(e) Show that the intersection of two neighborhoods is also a neighborhood. [4 marks]

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 Solution:
Suppose that M and N are two neighbourhoods of a point x, then there exists
open intervals (x − r1 , x + r2 ) ⊆ M and (x − r2 , x + r2 ) ⊆ N with r1 , r2 > 0. Let
r = min r1 , r2 .✓ Then clearly r > 0 and

(x − r, x + r) ⊆ (x − r1 , x + r1 ) ⊆ M ✓

and
(x − r, x + r) ⊆ (x − r2 , x + r2 ) ⊆ N ✓
So it follows that x ∈ (x − r, x + r) ⊆ M ∩ N ✓ and we conclude that M ∩ N is
a neighbourhood of x.

QUESTION 4. (20 marks)

(a) i. Define a limit point of a set S. [2 marks]

Solution:
A point x ∈ S is called a limit point of S if every neighbourhood of x contains
at least one member of S different from x. ✓2
n
ii. Let S = { n+1 : n ∈ N}. Find the derived set of S. [1 marks]

Solution:
S ′ = {1}✓

iii. Is S a closed set or an open set? Why? [3 marks]

Solution:
S is neither closed nor open.✓ Since S does not contain all it’s limit points,
it can’t be closed, since S is countable, it can’t be open.

(b) Show that a set is closed if and only if it’s complement is open. [5 marks]

Solution:
Suppose that S is a closed set. Let R − S = T be its complement.✓ We show
that T is open. Let x ∈ T . Then x ∈ / S and so x is not a limit point of S.✓ This
implies that there is a nbd N of x such that N ∩ S = ∅.✓ Thus T is a nbd of x.
Since x is arbitrary, T is a nbd of each of its points.
Conversely, Suppose that T is open. Then we need to show that every limit
point of S is a member of S. Let ξ ∈ S ′ . Suppose that ξ ∈/ S, then ξ ∈ T .✓ Now
since T is open, T is a nbd of ξ. But T ∩ S = ∅. ✓ Thus ξ cannot be a limit
point of S. A contradiction.

(c) Show that if S = (a, b), then its derived set S ′ = [a, b]. [5 marks]

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 Solution:
We first show that (a, b) ⊆ S ′ .✓ Let x ∈ S. We show that x ∈ S ′ . Let 0 <
ϵ < min(b − x, x − a). There exists an open interval Ix = (x − ϵ, x + ϵ) which
contains an element x − 2ϵ of S different from x, hence x is a limit point of S.✓
Hence each x is a limit point of S. We need to show that a, b ∈ S ′ . Clearly, for
each 0 < ϵ the open interval (a − ϵ, a + ϵ) contains an element a − 2ϵ of S. Thus
a ∈ S ′ .✓ Similarly, b ∈ S ′ . It remains to show that if y ∈ [a, b]c , then y ∈
/ S ′.
′
Let ξ > 0 be a real number. Then clearly a − ξ ∈ S since there exists an open
3ξ ξ


interval a − 2 , a − 2 containing a − ξ and which does not contain any member
of S.✓ Similarly b + ϵ is not a limit point of S. Hence S ′ = [a, b].✓

(d) Let A = (−∞, −3) ∪ {−2} ∪ [−2, 0) ∪ (3, 5). Find:

i. Limit points of A that are not in A. [2 mark]

Solution:
−3, 3, 05 ✓2

ii. Closure of A (Ā). [1 mark]

Solution:
(−∞, −3] ∪ {−2} ∪ [−2, 0] ∪ [3, 5]

iii. Is A closed or open? Do not explain. [1 mark]

Solution:
A is neither closed nor open.

QUESTION 5. (20 marks)

(a) Let f (x) be a function that is defined on some neighbourhood of c. Define the limit
of f as x → c. [2 marks]

Solution:
The function f is said to tend to a limit l as x tends to (or approaches) c if for
each ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that |f (x) − l| < ϵ, whenever |x − c| < δ.

(b) Evaluate the following: [4 marks]

2 − 2x2
i. lim
x→1 x − 1

Solution:
d
2 − 2x2 dx
(2 − 2x2 ) −4x
lim = d
(x = 1) = (x = 1) = −4✓2
x→1 x − 1 (x − 1) 1
dx

ii. lim (12 − 2x2 )(x + 1)

x→1

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 Solution:
lim (12 − 2x2 )(x + 1) = 10(2) = 10✓2
x→1

(c) Suppose f and g are two functions defined on some neighbourhood of c such that
lim f (x) = l and lim g(x) = m. Show that [5 marks]
x→c x→c

lim(f (x) + g(x)) = l + m

x→c

Solution:
Since limx→c f (x) = l and limx→c g(x) = m, therefore, for each ϵ > 0 there are
δ1 , δ2 > 0 such that
ϵ
|f (x) − l| < , when 0 < |x − c| < δ1 and
2
ϵ
|g(x) − m| < , when 0 < |x − c| < δ2
2
If δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }, then for each |x − c| < δ, |f (x) − l| < 2ϵ , |g(x) − m| < ϵ
2
and
therefore,

|(f (x) + g(x)) − (l + m)| = |f (x) − l + g(x) − m|

≤ |f (x) − l| + |g(x) − m| < ϵ.

Thus |(f (x) + g(x)) − (l + m)| < ϵ whenever |x − c| < δ which implies that

lim(f (x) + g(x)) = l + m.

x→c

(d) Consider the function 

1,


x = 0,
x, 0 < x < 1,





2, x = 1,
f (x) =


 x, 1 < x ≤ 2,
−1,



 2 < x < 3,

0, x = 3.


i. Sketch the graph of f (x). [3 marks]

Solution:

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ii. Explain the types of discontinuities at points x = 1 and x = 2. [6 marks]

Solution:

x = 1 Removable discontinuity In this case the limit limx→1 f (x) = 1

exists but is not equal to f (1) = 2. Can be removed by setting f (1) =
1. ✓3

x = 2 Jump discontinuity This occurs because

lim f (x) = 2 ̸= −1 = lim+ ✓3

x→2− x→2

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