COLLEGE OF

Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF
Civil and Environmental
Engineering

• CENG242
Water Supply and Wastewater Management
• Dr. Hamdan Hamdan
• [email protected]

• Lecture 1:
Introduction; Water Distribution Systems
 Water quality – Are
water wars our future?

• Drinking water in various countries

does not meet WHO standards.
• 14,000 deaths per day due to
contamination of drinking water by
untreated sewage in developing
countries

• biosystem affected by water pollution

• Biodiversity affected from toxic
materials released into water
bodies
• algal blooms and excessive weed
growth: water with odor, taste and
sometimes color
 Water Quality and Public
Health
Challenge of Environmental
engineer: provide clean water for
everyone

• Safe, high-quality drinking water

• essential aspect of public health

• Chlorination of water
• One of most significant measures to protect health
• drastic reductions in waterborne infections

• requirement for human consumption of water: 2.5 L/d

• maintain health

• developing world
• unsanitary water supplies: spread of gastrointestinal
illnesses and infectious diseases: morbidity and
mortality
Water
supply,
treatment
and
distribution
• two main sources of drinking water used by the
human population

• surface water: rivers and lakes

• Groundwater: stored naturally in underground aquifers
 Modern water distribution
systems

The basic function of these

water utilities

• obtain water from a source storage

• treat the water to an acceptable
quality
• deliver the desired quantity of water
to the appropriate place at the
appropriate time.
 Point Sources and non-point of
pollution
• Point sources
• Located at specific places (single sources)
• Easy to identify, monitor, and regulate
• occur when the polluting substance is emitted directly
into the waterway
• Ex. Domestic sewage and industrial wastes because
they are generally collected by a network of pipes or
channels and conveyed to a single point of discharge
into the receiving water.

• Nonpoint sources
• Broad, diffuse areas: Difficult to identify and control
• as water moves across the land or through the
ground, it picks up natural and human-made
pollutants
• Pollutants can be deposited in water bodies at
multiple discharge points
• Ex: fertilizers and pesticides from fields are carried into
a stream by surface runoff.
 Point
Source

Nonpoint Sediment
from Unprotected
Farmland Flows into
Streams
Treatment of Water for Residential
Consumption

• Public Water supply

• undergoes treatment in order
to meet quality standards for
safe levels of chemical
contaminants and
waterborne microorganisms
• Processing of water
• takes place in water
treatment plants
• four main stages of water
treatment in in most plants
Conventional water treatment
1. Coagulation
2. Sedimentation
3. Filtration
4. disinfection
 • Water treatment processes
• Storage
• Screening
Summary of • Sedimentation
• Coagulation/Flocculation
conventional water • Filtration
• Miscellaneous treatment processes
treatment

Primary Coagulation /Flocculation

Filtration Disinfection
Screening Settling Settling

Sludge discharge
Remove Remove settlable Remove nonsettlable Remove residual
large solids particles and colloidal particles particles
 Sewage
Sewage
Processing • waste and wastewater produced by
residential and commercial sources
and and discharged into sewers.
Disposal • Proper handling and treatment
needed to prevent the spread of
disease and damage to the
environment
• High organic content

Wastewater treatment

• produces wastewater that can be

returned safely to waterways or
reused or recycled
 Why to Treat
Wastewaters?
To prevent • the spread of disease

• water and environmental

To protect
resources

To ensure • adequate water supplies

Suspended o deposits; anaerobic

solids conditions
Biodegradable
organics
o oxygen depletion

o transmittance of
Pathogens
diseases
ogroundwater pollution,
Nutrients surface water eutrophication.

Priority o carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic,

pollutants endocrine-disrupting Heavy metals
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

Physical Chemical

Microbiological Radioactive
 Physical Water Quality Characteristics

Turbidity
• suspended material: clay, silt, organic material, etc.
• Turbidity in drinking water may not affect health, usually
objectionable for aesthetic reasons

Color
• aesthetic concerns
• color can indicate the presence of organic substances and presence
of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials.

Taste and odor

• Drinking water should be free from any objectionable taste or odor
at point of use

temperature
• temperature of water in streams and rivers
• Increases in water temperature can have beneficial or adverse
effects in a receiving water body
• Ex: impact on production of clams and oysters. Ex. heated water
from a power plant can block salmon migration
 • Inorganic and Organic Substances
• Detergents
Chemical Water • Insecticides and herbicides
Quality • Petroleum hydrocarbons

Characteristics • Anthropogenic
• originating from human activity.

• Naturally occurring pollution

• from aquatic animals and plants that
inhabit water bodies: produce wastes
that contaminate the water
• Soils harbors microorganisms
• Decaying tree leaves and branches
contribute organic materials
• Natural rock and soil: many chemicals
and metals: Ex. Arsenic poisoning case
study in Bangladesh
Chemicals in the Water Supply
• Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs)
– washed off or excreted from the body
– Analgesics and contraceptive agents
(hormonally active)

• Water Disinfection By-Products (DBPs)

– Disinfection of water with chlorine produces
by-products called DBPs.
– cancer and adverse reproductive outcomes

• Solvent-Contaminated Drinking Water

– Industrial chemicals may infiltrate the
underground aquifers used for public water
supplies
– Ex. leaking underground solvent tank
Microbiological Water Quality Characteristics
Microbiological

Protozoans Cryptosporidium
Bacteria Salmonella

Viruses Hepatitis A &E Viruses

Helminthes Guinea worm

 Radioactive Water Quality Characteristics

• Water with high radioactivity

• areas where nuclear
industries are situated.
• mining of radioactive
materials
• naturally occurring
radioactive materials
Standards VS. Guidelines

Guideline: A
recommended
contaminant limit to
support and maintain
a designated water
use

Standard: A mandatory
contaminant limit that
must not be exceeded
(often reflects legal duty
or obligation)
 Bacteria
Transmitted by
Fecal- Oral Route
• Salmonella spp.
• Typhoid fever
• Shigella spp.
• Dysentery
• Very unstable in nature →if present,
recent pollution
• pathogenic Escherichia coli
• Different from normal
intestinal flora
• Gastroenteritis
• Vibrio cholera
• Cholera
 Water quality considerations
• pH
• effects on water treatment- process performance.
• Alkalinity
• acid-neutralizing capacity of a solution
• important factor in coagulation
• Hardness
• mineral content (mainly Ca and Mg)
• scaling and clogging of pipes and equipment
• Turbidity
• measure of the particulate matter in the water
• Natural organic matter
• concern for disinfection by-product formation
• Total dissolved solids (TDS).
• Salt content
 • A municipal water system provides:
• Safe, potable water for domestic use
Water • Adequate quantity at sufficient pressure for fire
protection
• Industrial water for manufacturing
Distribution • A typical waterworks consists of a source, and a
treatment, pumping & distribution system
Systems • Sources for municipal supplies are deep wells, shallow
wells, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs
• About 2/3 of public supplies comes from surface
water
 WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

• In general, a water distribution system consists of the following elements:

• Intake structure: where water from the source is collected to be distributed

• Low-lift pumping station: that pumps the water at a relatively low head (5-10m)

• Treatment facility: for the treatment of the incoming water

• Storage facility: for the storage of the treated water before its distribution

• High-lift pumping station: to pump the water to the supply locations

• Distribution network: delivers the water to the users

• Balancing reservoir: balances between the supply and demand

• The supply rate is constant while the demand rate is not.
• Unused supplied water is stored in the reservoir.
• This water is taken from the reservoir when the rate of demand is higher than the rate of supply
 WATER QUANTITY
AND
PRESSURE
REQUIREMENTS
• The amount of water required by
a municipality depends on:

• Population and economic

conditions

• Commercial and industrial

water users

• Climate and conservation

efforts

• Reuse for landscape irrigation

POPULATION
ESTIMATIONS
• The water distribution system is expected to
meet the needs of the population in the
present and up to a certain point in the future.

• The change in a population size is determined

by

• Births, deaths, migration, etc.

• Social and economic factors such as

• immigration restrictions, advances in
maternal hygiene, improvement in
nutrition, discoveries in medicine,
fluctuation in the national economy,
and wars and disasters.
 POPULATION
ESTIMATIONS
• Statistical information regarding the present population is
obtained from
• governmental institutions
• field studies such as spot statistics
• Divide the whole area into smaller sections
• Consider the population in a section representative of
the whole area
• Study this section using a questionnaire as a survey tool.
• Obtain information on the family size, socioeconomic
status, etc.
• The population in a certain area can be obtained from
readily available data
• the number of telephone lines in a certain area
• the electricity lines
• students in schools in the area.
• It is important to realize that this information is not very
accurate.
 POPULATION
ESTIMATIONS
• Population projections into the future can be obtained
using different approaches depending on the
underlying conditions

• Arithmetic method

• Uniform percentage method

• Curvilinear

• Logisitic

• Declining growth

• Ratio
 POPULATION
ESTIMATIONS

1. Arithmetic method:
• it applies to a stable community in terms of resources, standards of living, and immigration, where
the rate of growth is constant.
 POPULATION
ESTIMATIONS
2. Uniform percentage method:
• it applies to a community with a lot of resources and that has not become saturated yet,
where the rate of population growth is rapid.
• Thus, the population increases geometrically.
 POPULATION ESTIMATIONS
3. Curvilinear method:
• involves the graphical projection of the past population growth curve based on
the followed trend of the data.
• The resultant curve is then compared to growths in other cities of similar
characteristics
 POPULATION
ESTIMATIONS

4. Logistic method:

• this method is based on the basic

behavior of living organisms where
the population growth curve follows
an ‘S’ shape.

• combines a geometric rate of

growth at low population with a
declining growth rate as the area
approaches some limiting
population

• This method is long term.

POPULATION ESTIMATIONS
5. Declining growth method:
• it is used when the population is in the declining phase.
 6. Ratio method:

• it depends on the projection of the population in the

POPULATION country as a whole.
ESTIMATIONS
• usually applicable in large communities where the
population in that area is substantial compared to the
population in the country.

• assumes that the ratio of the population of the city

being studied to that of the larger group will continue
to change in the future in the same manner as in the
past
 POPULATION ESTIMATIONS
• Use of good judgement
• Low estimate → inadequate
system requiring redesign,
reconstruction and refinancing
• Overestimation of population
→ excess capacity financed by
a small population group
• Selecting an appropriate method is
not easy
• Engineers test all methods
against recorded growth
• Look at available resources and
potential for population growth
Example 1

• A community has experienced the growth in population

as shown below:
• Estimate the population size in 2020
Example 1-Solution

• Plot the data in Excel:

• What type of growth? Looks
like Uniform Percentage!
• Applying average K’, we
obtain 8618 as 2020
population
Example 1-Solution

• Let’s apply the Logistics Method:

• Using the following population census data:

• Calculate Psat, a, and b

• n = 20 yrs
 WATER USE FOR DIFFERENT
PURPOSES
• Municipal water demand
• Domestic (40% of total water supplied)
• Washing, drinking, cooking, etc.
• Commercial and industrial (35% of total water
supplied)
• Factories, offices and stores
• Public use (10% of total water supplied excluding
firefighting)
• Parks, governmental offices, firefighting
• Losses and waste (15% of total water supplied)
• Losses at various levels of supply network
• Note:
• Irrigation water is not included in municipal water
demand, however it accounts for about 70% of the
total water usage.
WATER DEMAND IN LEBANON
 FACTORS AFFECTING
WATER USE
• Season of the year
• Winter: 20% less than annual average
• Summer: 30% more than annual average
• Affluence
• Habits
• Quality of water
• Type of system (meter vs. orifice)
• The meter system charges the consumer based on the amount of water they
use
• The orifice system supplies water based on the pressure in the system. The
consumer pays a fixed annual charge.
• Pressure in the system

• For example, people tend to use more water in the summer, if the water is of good
quality, if they are affluent, and if the water is delivered at high pressure. The type of
system has a great impact on water usage whereby the meter system is more
effective in minimizing water use.
WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE
REQUIREMENTS
• Residential water use varies seasonally, daily & hourly
• Public water demand is unique for every
municipality

• Projecting future demand, or starting a conservation

program must be based on accumulated local records

• Water flows used in waterworks design depend on

the magnitude and variations in consumption
• And the reserve needed for firefighting

• Water intakes, wells, treatment plants, pumping, and

transmission lines are sized for peak demand
WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

• Three important parameters used to represent this variation are:

• Average yearly variation = (amount of water used in a year/365 days) = average daily
supply
• Maximum daily variation is obtained by plotting the amount of water used by a
community everyday (Q[1]), over a year.
• The day where the maximum amount of water was consumed represents the maximum
daily demand
 WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

• Three important parameters used

to represent this variation are:

• Peak hourly variation =

• obtained by plotting the

demand for water on an
hourly basis for the day of the
year where the maximum
daily variation was observed.
 WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE
REQUIREMENTS

• The water distribution system should be designed to supply

an amount of water equal to
• the average yearly × factor of maximum daily × factor of peak hourly

• Usually, the transmission line from the source to the

community
• should be designed to accommodate the maximum daily demand.

• As for the distribution lines within the community,

• they should be designed to accommodate the peak hourly flow
(maximum daily plus the extra water from the balancing reservoir).
 WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

• Each community should be carefully studied to determine average and peak flow
• In the absence of data, we assume the following:
• The maximum daily consumption is 180 percent of the annual average
• The maximum hourly rate is about 150 percent of the average for that day of
maximum consumption
WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

• The maximum hourly rate for a community

having an average annual rate of 670
L/capita/day could be estimated as being:
• 670 x 1.80 x 1.50 = 1800 L/capita/day
to which must be added the fire
demand

• Note: These estimates are provided for

residential communities of moderate sizes.
Larger communities have smaller ratios of
peak to average flows
WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

• Minimum rates are also

important, particularly in the
design of pumping stations
• Minimum rates depend on:
• Leakage
• Night industrial use
• Portion of peak demand
provided from storage
• Typical minimal range from 20
to 25 percent of the daily
average
WATER QUANTITY AND
PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

• Recommended water pressure in a distribution

system is 65 to 75 psi
• Considered adequate to compensate for
local fluctuations in consumption
• High pressure in water mains results in more
frequent pipeline breaks and greater leakage
losses
• At excessive levels, leaks occur in domestic
plumbing

• 1 psi= 0.0689 Bar

 MUNICIPAL FIRE
PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
• Needed fire flow (NFF) is the rate of
water flow required for firefighting
to confine a major fire to the
buildings within a block or other
group complex with minimal loss
• Determination of NFF considers:
• Construction
• Occupancy
• Exposure
• Communication of buildings in
a complex
 MUNICIPAL FIRE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS

• The construction factor Ci, based

on construction and square
footage of the building, is
calculated:
 MUNICIPAL FIRE
PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
• Regardless of the calculated value, the Ci shall
not exceed the following:

• 8000 gpm (500 L/s) for construction

classes 1 and 2;

• 6000 gpm (380 L/s) for construction

classes 3, 4, 5, and 6;

• 6000 gpm (380 L/s) for a one-story

building of any class of construction.

• The minimum value of Ci is 500 gpm (32 L/s)

 MUNICIPAL FIRE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS

• Ai, effective area is the area of the largest floor in the building plus
the following percentage of the other floors

• (1) for buildings of construction class 1 through 4, 50 percent

of all other floors

• (2) for buildings of construction class 5 or 6, 25 percent of the

area not exceeding the two largest floors. The doors shall be
automatic or self-closing and labeled as class B fire doors (1.0
hr or more protection).
• a. 25 percent of the area of all other floor
• b. OR the total area of the two largest floors, if less than
(a)
MUNICIPAL FIRE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS

• The occupancy factors Oi

for combustibility classes:

• Exposure Xi and
communication Pi factors
will be assumed to be zero
 • The combustibility classes:
MUNICIPAL FIRE
PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
MUNICIPAL FIRE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS

• NFF for single- and two-

family dwellings not
exceeding two stories in
height
 From BOOK

Exposure and
communication factors
MUNICIPAL FIRE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
MUNICIPAL FIRE PROTECTION
REQUIREMENTS
 Practical Limits of Fire Flow

• Maximum fire flow most municipalities are

likely to be able to reliably provide for
firefighting is 3500 gpm

• Required duration for fire flow is

• 2 hours for up to 2500 gpm
• 3 hours for 3000 and 3500 gpm

• Pressure in a distribution system must be

high enough to permit the fire department
adequate hydrant flows

• A gravity system—delivering water without

pumps—is desirable from a fire protection
standpoint
• Due to reliability
Water Demand
with Fire Flow
• To determine maximum water demand
during a fire, add fire flow to daily
consumption rate.

• Design distribution lines for peak

hourly demand OR maximum daily
with fire flow, whichever is higher!
Example on Water Demand

• For a community of 22,000 with average consumption rate of

600 L/c/d and a fire flow dictated by single family dwellings
with a distance over 100 ft.

• Calculate the maximum hourly demand of the community

Water Demand with Fire Flow

• The calculation is as follows:

• Average domestic demand

= 22,000 x 600
= 13.2 x 106 L/d

• Maximum daily demand

= 1.8 x average domestic demand
= 23.76 x 106 L/d

• Maximum hourly demand

= 1.5 x maximum daily demand
= 35.64 x 106 L/d
Water Demand with Fire Flow

• The calculation is as follows:

• DFF = 500 gpm/3.78 = 132.3 L/min = 1.9 x 106 L/d (check table 4 and mind the
conversion)

• If fire flow is to be maintained for 2 hrs, the total flow required during the day
is:

• (23.76 x 106) + (1.9 x 106 x (2hrs/24hrs)) = 23.91 x 106 L/d

• This represents an average per capita rate of 1087 L/day (23.91 x 106
L/d ÷ 22,000 person)

• Use the peak hourly demand!

• 35.64 x 106 L/d represents an average per capita rate of 1620 L/day
 WELL
WATER
INTAKE
• Main components of a well:

• A solid casing, sealed in the

upper soil profile

• A screen set in the aquifer,

allowing water to enter, while
precluding sand and gravel

• A vertical-turbine pump
suspended in the casing on
column pipe
 SURFACE
WATER
INTAKES
• Typical intakes are towers and
shoreline structures

• Fish protection is important in the

design/construction

• Inclined/vertical flat-plate intake

screens are mounted on a
framework submerged in flowing
waters

• Ports at several depths permit

selection of the most desirable
water quality any season of the
year

• Shore intakes located adjacent to a

river must be sited with
consideration for water current
 • A municipal water distribution system includes:
• A network of mains
• Storage reservoirs and booster pumping
stations
PIPING • Fire hydrants, and service lines
• Arterial mains, or feeders, are pipelines of larger size
NETWORKS connected to the lines supplying water for
distribution
• Major demand areas should be served by a
feeder loop
PIPING NETWORKS
• The grid-iron system is the best arrangement for
distributing water
• Feeder mains are placed every 2nd or 3rd street in
one direction and every 4th to 8th street in the other
• Sizes are selected to furnish the flow for domestic,
commercial, and industrial demands—plus fire flow
 PIPING NETWORKS

• Advantages of the gridiron system

• Water is kept in good
circulation due to the absence
of dead ends.
• In the cases of a breakdown in
some section, water is
available from some other
direction.
PIPING
NETWORKS
• A dead-end system is avoided in new
construction and can often be corrected in
existing systems
• If a pipe break occurs, a substantial
portion of the community may be without
water
• Under some conditions, water in dead-
end lines develops tastes and odors from
stagnation
• Dead ends may require frequent
flushing where houses are widely
separated
PIPING NETWORKS

• Arrangement of a water system is dictated

by:
• Source of water supply
• Topography of the distribution area
• Variations in water consumption
• The pattern for water consumption is a
direct function of industrial, commercial,
and residential demands
• Climate has a definite effect—
• lawn watering creates a major
demand in residential areas in
semiarid regions
• Pumping capacity, size of network pipes,
and volume of storage are all interrelated
• Increases in one can offset deficiencies in
others
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
DESIGN
• When designing a water distribution system
determine
• the population to be supplied
• the quantity of water per person
• the fire demand

• The next step is to determine

• the characteristics of the pipes to be used
• length and diameter, the flow in the
pipes,
• the pumping head necessary to provide an
adequate quantity of water to the
population with an appropriate residual
pressure.
Hydraulic Fundamental for Pipe Flow

• Water pressure is
exerted equally in all
directions, and increases
linearly with depth

• Pressure in psi is
equal to 0.433 times
the depth in feet

• The association between

quantity of water flow,
average velocity, and
cross-sectional area of
flow is given by the
continuity equation
Pressure-
Velocity-Head
Relationship
• Total energy at any point in a
hydraulics system is equal to
the sum of elevation head +
pressure head + velocity head
 • If the energy is compared at two different
points in a piping system the below equation
Pressure- results
Velocity-Head • The term hL or Head Loss, represents the energy
Relationship losses that occur in any real system. The major
loss of energy is due to friction between the
moving water and pipe wall
 • The hydraulic gradient is defined as the line connecting the level of
Pressure-Velocity-Head elevation plus pressure energies, this being defined by the water
Relationship surfaces in imaginary piezometer tubes inserted in the piping.
• (SL = hL/L)

• The energy gradient or grade line is the imaginary line connecting all
points of total energy
• This line must always slope in the direction of flow, showing a
decrease in energy, unless external energy is added to the
system, for example, by a pump
 • Calculate the head loss in the pipeline illustrated
in Figure 5 based on the following:
• Z1 = 4.5 m; P1 = 280 kPa; V1 = 1.2m/s
• Z2 = 9.3m; P2 = 200kPa; V2 = 1.2m/s

Example
 Pressure-Velocity-Head
Relationship
• Valves, fittings, and other appurtenances
disturb the flow of water, causing losses of
head
• In addition to the friction loss in the
pipe

• Distribution system losses due to

appurtenances are relatively insignificant
compared to pipe friction losses

• In pumping stations & treatment plants,

minor losses in valves & fittings are a
major part of the total losses
 FLOW IN PIPES
UNDER
PRESSURE
• Several equations were developed to
measure the flow of water in a pipe

• The Chezy equation

• The Darcy-Weisbach’s equation
• The Manning equation
• The Hazen-Williams equation

• Note that the ‘Hardy-Cross’ method

based on the above hydraulic
equations has been used in the design
and analysis of the water distribution
systems
 FLOW IN PIPES UNDER
PRESSURE
• The most common pipe flow formula is
the Hazen Williams Formula

• This equation relates the quantity of

turbulent water flow through a circular
pipe flowing full with diameter of the
pipe, slope of the hydraulic gradient, and
coefficient of friction depending on the
roughness of the pipe.

• The Hazen Williams equation can also be

expressed to calculate head loss directly
by substituting S=hL/L and rearranging
Hazen Williams
Formula
Hazen
Williams
Formula
Coefficient C for the
Hazen Williams
Formula
 Hazen Williams Formula
• the Hazen Williams equation for a coefficient
equal to 100, representing 15- to 20-year-old
ductile-iron pipe.

• In the nomograph, given any two parameters:

• discharge, diameter of pipe, loss of head,
or velocity
• the remaining two can be determined
from the intersections along a straight
line drawn across the nomograph.

• Example:
• flow of 30 L/s in a 200-mm-diameter pipe
• has a head loss of 0.0080 m/m and
velocity of 0.95 m/s.
Hazen
Williams
Formula
The nomograph based on the
Hazen Williams Formula in
English and SI metric units
based on C = 100
 • Calculate the head loss in a 24-in diameter,
Example 5000-ft long, 20-year old, unlined iron pipeline,
(C = 100), carrying a water flow of 10 cu ft/sec
Example
• Draw a straight line with 24-in
diameter and velocity of 3.2
ft/sec
• hL = 2.3 ft/1000 ft x 5000 ft =
11.5 ft
Examples
 • If a 200-mm water main is carrying a flow of 30 l/s, what
is the velocity of flow and head loss?
Examples • a) Using Figure 7, a straight line extended through a
discharge of 30 l/s and a diameter of 200 mm
• intersects the head loss at 0.008 m/m.
Pipe Size
• All water pipes and water mains must be
sized to meet the flow demands and
pressure requirements
• Often 12-in pipes are used on one-mile
grids
• With 8-in pipes serving residential
streets
• Velocities above 3 ft/sec (1 m/sec) help
keep any solids from depositing in the
pipeline
• Velocities over 10 ft/sec (3 m/sec) may
erode the pipe lining and damage valves
Pipe Size
• Pipe sizes have long
been established
using velocity rules of
thumb
• For a given velocity,
pipe size is calculated
using:
 KINDS OF
PIPE
• Pipes used for distributing water under pressure
include ductile iron, plastic, concrete, and steel
• Small-diameter pipes for houses are copper or
plastic

• Plastic (thermoplastic) pipe

• will not corrode/deteriorate by electrolysis,
chemicals, or biological activity
• Very smooth, minimizing friction loss in water
flow
• Plastic pipe for service connections & household
systems includes
• ABS (polymers of acrylonitrile, butadiene,
and styrene)
• PE (polyethylene)
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride)

• PVC is preferred for water piping because of strength &

resistance to internal pressure
 PUMP
CHARACTERISTICS
• Pumps do many jobs in water/wastewater systems
• Low-lift pumps elevate water from a source, or
wastewater from a sewer, to the treatment plant
• High-service pumps discharge water under
pressure to a distribution system, or wastewater
through a force main
• Booster pumps to increase pressure in water
distribution systems, and are used for
recirculation
• Transfer pumps move water within a treatment
plant
• Well pumps lift water from shallow or deep wells
• Reciprocating positive-displacement and
progressing cavity pumps are used to move
sludges
PUMP
CHARACTERISTICS

Provide discharge
flow and head
DISTRIBUTION PUMPING
AND
STORAGE

• High-lift pumps move processed

water from a basin at the
treatment plant into the
distribution system

• Different sets of pumps may be

needed to pump against unequal
pressures to different service
areas
DISTRIBUTION
PUMPING AND
STORAGE

• Distribution storage is provided by

• elevated tanks,
• stand-pipes,
• underground basins & covered reservoirs
• Ground-level standpipes or reservoirs are
used if gravity water pressure is unnecessary
• Or provided by booster pumping
• The term standpipe applies when the height
of a tank exceeds its diameter
• When diameter is greater than its height, it is
referred to as a reservoir
 DISTRIBUTION
PUMPING AND
STORAGE
• Concrete reservoirs may be constructed
above or below-ground
• The choice between elevated and ground
storage in water distribution depends on:
• Topography and reliability of water
supply
• Size of community and economics
• Principal functions of distribution storage:
• To permit continuous treatment
• Uniform pumping rates of water into
the system
• Storing water in advance of actual
need
• Distribution storage location, capacity &
elevation are closely associated with water
demands
STORAGE Example
• Calculate the distribution storage needed for
both equalizing demand and for fire reserve
based on the following information.

• Hourly demands on the day of maximum

water consumption are given in Table 5.

• Listed are hourly consumption expressed

in gallons per minute, gallons consumed
each hour of the day, and cumulative
consumption starting at 12 midnight.

• Fire flow requirements are 6000 gpm for a

duration of 6 hr for the high-value district,
with 2000 gpm from storage.
STORAGE
Example
• Figure 14 is a diagram of the consumption
rate-time data given in Table 5.

• When the consumption rate is less than

the 1860-gpm pumping rate, the
reservoir is filling.

• When the consumption rate is greater

than 1860 gpm, the reservoir is
emptying.

• The area under the emptying, or filling,

curve is the storage volume needed to
equalize demand for the average 24-hr
pumping rate of 1860 gpm.

• Since the areas on Figure 14 are

difficult to measure, a mass diagram is
commonly used to determine
equalizing storage
STORAGE Example
• Figure 15 is a plot of the cumulative flow, column 4 in
Table 5, versus time.
• A straight line connecting the origin and final
point of this mass curve is the cumulative
pumpage necessary to meet the consumptive
demand;
• the slope of this line is the constant 24-hr
pumping rate.
• To find the required storage capacity,
• construct lines that are parallel to the cumulative
pumping rate tangent to the mass curve at the
high and low points.
• The vertical distance between these two parallels
is the required tank capacity, in this case, 500,000
gal.
 STORAGE Example
• However, sometimes it is not expedient to pump water into the
distribution system at a constant rate throughout the day and night.
• For example, a small community may limit treatment plant
operations to daylight hours or operation of pumps to off-peak
periods when power rates are low.
• Assume in this instance that the lowest power rates may be
obtained during the 8-hr period between 12 midnight and 8
A.M.
• The graphical procedure for determining storage requirements
using this 8-hr pumping period is illustrated in Figure 15 using
dashed lines.
• An accumulated pumping line is drawn from the origin, 0 flow
and time of 12 P.M., to the end of the pumping period at 8
A.M. on the maximum cumulative consumption for the day.
• The storage required is then equal to the vertical distance at 8
A.M. between the accumulated demand line and the
maximum daily pumpage.
• (If a starting time for pump operation other than 12 P.M. is to be
considered, the data in Table 5 must be shifted to the selected time,
cumulative consumption values must be recomputed, and Figure 15
will have to be redrawn with an origin at the new time.)
STORAGE Example
• The storage required to provide the entire fire reserve is equal to flow rate
times duration
• 2000 gal/min x 60 min/hr x 6 hrs = 720,000 gal

• The total storage capacity required for equalizing demand for a continuous
24-hr pumping rate plus fire protection is equal to
• 0.50 + 0.72 = 1.22 mil gal

• the total, considering an 8-hr pumping period plus fire reserve, equals
• 2.11 + 0.72 = 2.83 mil gal
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
DESIGN LAYOUTS
 VALVES

• Valves are found in treatment plants,

pump stations, and pipe networks—as
well as at storage reservoirs
• To control the magnitude or
direction of water flow
• Four basic valves are: slide; rotary; globe;
swing
• Valves are also classified by operating
purpose and function without regard to
the kind of device used
• Shutoff and altitude; by-pass and
flow control
• The means of operating the movable
element of a valve are by screw, gears,
or water pressure
 • Valves to stop the flow of water through a pipeline are the
most abundant valves in a water system
• Pipe networks are sectionalized by installation of shutoff
Shutoff Valves valves
• So an area affected by a break or repair can be
isolated
• With minimum reduction in service and fire
protection
 • A check valve is a semiautomatic device that permits
water flow in only one direction
• It opens under the influence of pressure and closes
Check Valves automatically when flow ceases
• The two basic configurations of check valves in water
system applications are: lift check and swing check
 Pressure-Reducing
Valves

• Small Pressure-Reducing/Pilot
Valves

• The function of these valves

is to reduce high inlet
pressure to a predetermined
lower outlet pressure

• Common application is in a
main connecting separate
pipe networks located on
two different elevations

• Water pressure is reduced to

prevent excessive pressure
in the pipe network at lower
elevation
Altitude
Valves
• Altitude valves control flow in & out of an
elevated storage tank/standpipe to maintain
desired water-level

• One designed as a double-acting sequence

valve will automatically close when the tank
is full

• A single-acting altitude valve in the inlet pipe

will control only water flow into a storage
tank

• Outflow is through another pipe with a check

valve to prevent system water from entering

• A differential altitude valve closes when a

tank is full & stays closed until the tank drops
to a specific level
Air-Release
Valves
• Air pockets increase resistance to
water flow, and air can enter a pipe
network from:
• A pump drawing air into the
suction pipe
• Through leaking joints
• By entrained or dissolved
gases released from the water
• Air release valves are placed at
distribution pipe high points, valve
domes/fittings & pump discharge
lines
• A common air-release valve
contains a ball that floats at the top
of a cylinder, sealing a small opening
BACKFLOW PREVENTERS
• Water in a distribution system must be
protected against contamination from backflow
• Through customer service lines and other
system outlets

• Of greatest concern is backflow of toxic

chemicals and wastewaters that may contain
pathogens

• Back siphonage is backflow resulting from

negative or reduced pressure in the supply piping

• A check valve backflow preventer is composed of

two single, independently acting check valves
 EVALUATION OF
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
• Supply source plus storage facilities should
be able to yield enough to meet current
demands & anticipated consumption
10 years in the future

• The minimum water amount available from

a source should always be able to ensure
uninterrupted service

• Storage capacity of an impounding reservoir

should be equal to 30 days of maximum daily
demand
• For 5 years into the future
 • For well supplies there should be no mining of water
• Neither the static groundwater level nor specific capacity of
the wells should decrease as demand increases
EVALUATION OF
DISTRIBUTION • A surface water intake must deliver sufficient water to meet
SYSTEMS municipal use and treatment plant needs

• A water intake system must be reliable

• Located, protected, duplicated—so no interruption occurs
EVALUATION OF
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

• A pumping system must have capacity

to provide water at pressures & flow
rates to meet daily/hourly peak
demand—with required fire flow

• Pumping facilities must also meet

demands—taking into account failures
and maintenance requirements

• Pumping facilities should be sufficiently

reliable
• By use of unit duplication, standby
equipment, and alternative power
sources
 EVALUATION OF
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

• Arterial and secondary feeder mains

should be designed to supply service
for 40 or more years
• Actual useful service life under
normal conditions is 50 to 100
years

• Distribution lines are laid out in a

gridiron pattern, avoiding dead ends
by proper looping

• The distribution of fire hydrants is

based on Insurance Services Office
standards
Service Connections to
buildings/ households

• A typical service installation

consists of a pipe from a
distribution main to a turnoff
near the property line

• Water meter, shutoff valve &

pressure regulator are normally in
the basement of the dwelling

• With the exception of lawn

sprinkling, a pressure of 15 psi is
normally adequate for operation
of any fixture
Questions