LAB MANUAL

Measurement Lab
(EEC-3930)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology
Aligarh Muslim University

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 COURSE DESCRIPTION FORM EEEC-3930
Course Title Measurement Lab
Course number EEc-3930
Credit Value 2.0
Course Category DC
Pre-requisite EE-251N Electrical Measurement, EE-352N Electrical & Electronic Instrumentation
Contact Hours 0-0-3
(L-T-P)
Type of Course Practical
Course For the enhancement of theoretical knowledge and to give the practical exposure of
Objectives different transducers, ac bridges, instruments and measurement procedures including
calibration and standardization of instruments.
Course After completing the lab course, the students
Outcomes 1. Should be able to know performance of various transducers, ac bridges and
instruments.
2. Should be able to know about the need and basics of calibration and
standardization procedure.
3. Should be able to do calibration of different instruments.
4. Can use the calibration and standardization procedures effectively in the
field work.
5. Can develop skills for handling more complex measurement system and
instruments.
Syllabus 1. To determine the capacitance of unknown capacitor by Schering bridge
method.
2. To study of construction of LVDT and to draw its input and output
characteristics to find its linear range of operation.
3. To measure the strain in a bar specimen using strain-gauge method.
4. To determine the phase angle and ratio error of a current transformer by
Petch-Elliot method.
5. To determine the B-H curve of a ring specimen of cast iron by the ballistic
galvanometer.
6. Separation of iron losses in magnetic sheet steel by Lloyd-Fisher square
method.
7. To measure THD and Harmonic components of different light loads
using NI-DAQ and LABVIEW
8. Study about Arduino and its application with (i) Blinking LED
(ii)Traffic light controller

Books*/ 1. G.W. Golding & F. C. Widdis, Electrical and Electronic Measurement and
References Instruments, Pitman/ A.H. Wheeler, Allahabad.
2. D. Bell, Electronic Instruments and Measurement, PHI Learning.
3. A.K. Sawhney, A course of Electrical and Electronic Measurement and
Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.
Course Evaluation of each lab reports and viva-voce 60 Marks
Assessment/ Sessional held every week on each lab report.
Evaluation/
Grading Policy Sessional Total 60 Marks
End Semester Examination (2 Hours) 40 Marks
Total 100 Marks

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 PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

a. Students will demonstrate knowledge of mathematics, science and Electrical

Engineering.
b. Students will demonstrate an ability to identify, formulate and solve
Electrical engineering problems.
c. Students will demonstrate an ability to design electrical and electronic
circuits and conduct experiments with electrical systems, analyze and
interpret data.
d. Students will demonstrate an ability to design a system, component or
process as per needs and specification within realistic constraints.
e. Students will demonstrate an ability to visualize and work on laboratory and
multidisciplinary tasks.
f. Students will demonstrate skills to use modern engineering tools, software
and equipment to analyze problems.
g. Students will demonstrate knowledge of professional and ethical
responsibilities.
h. Students will be able to communicate effectively.
i. Students will show the understanding of impact of engineering solutions on
the society and also will be aware of contemporary issues.
j. Students will develop confidence for self-education and ability to engage in
life-long learning.
k. Students who can participate and succeed in competitive examinations.

Mapping with Program Outcomes (POs)

POs
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)
x x x x x X x x x x
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS IN LAB

1. All students shall carry out experiments in groups.

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2. Each group will carry out a particular experiment, assigned to them in each term.

3. The next experiment to be performed is the next experiment mentioned in the list of

experiments (cyclic order).

4. The student should come prepared and should go through the experiment sheet

provided to them and the relevant theory.

5. After completion of the connection of circuit, get the connection checked by

Instructor or lab staff.

6. After performing the experiment, get the observation signed by a teacher.

7. Submit the Report, complete in all respect, on the consecutive next turn. Provide

sample calculation, graph, comment on result etc.

8. No student will be allowed to proceed to next experiment, unless he/she submits the

report of previous experiment. In such case no attendance will be marked for the

defaulter student.

9. The lab report will be checked and viva-voce will be held at the time submission on

each tern.

10. The Instructors and lab staff are available to assist the students in their work.

11. In case of any accident while performing experiments, turn off the power supply

immediately. Use fire extinguisher, if anything catches fire.

12. In case of any injury, use the first aid kit provided in the lab.

13. It is prohibited to smoke, eat or drink in the laboratory.

14. The class room discipline has to be maintained in the laboratory.

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 ELECTRONIC DEVICES & EQUIPMENT
Generally the equipment and devices discussed are:

1. Nature and types of measuring instruments

2. Basic measuring instruments
3. Power supplies
4. Digital/electronic Instruments

1. Nature of Measured Quantity and Number of Measuring Elements

i. Direct current circuit and/or dc responding measuring element

ii. Alternating current circuit and/or ac responding measuring element
iii. Direct and/or alternating current circuit and/or dc and ac responding measuring element

Safety

• Chassis (casing or body) of instrument is normally connected to ground terminal of the

input ac power supply, for the safety of working personnel.
• In case of CRO used in power electronics lab, it could give an electric shock to working
personnel and cause short-circuit condition with COMMON terminal of probe at the
negative terminal of the ac-to dc converter, which is a floating point (in the negative half
cycle, it is at input phase (negative) level i.e. -2340V). Thus remove GROUND of input
ac power supply of CRO and be careful. The COMMON terminal is now floating which
is protected from short circuit but it still gives an electric shock while touching it.
• High voltage flash may appear to working personnel during measurement (e.g. using
DMM), which is due to the transmitted effect of lighting stroke through power supply
wires/ conductors.

Position of use
i. Instrument to be used with the dial vertical
ii. Instrument to be used with the dial horizontal
iii. Instrument to be used with the dial inclined (for example 60o) from the horizontal plane

Principal of Operation of Instruments (type)

i. Permanent –magnet moving–coil instrument

ii. Permanent-magnet ratio-meter (quotient-meter)
iii. Moving-iron instrument iv. Polarized moving-iron instrument
v. Moving-iron ratio-meter
vi. Induction instrument
vii. Electrostatic instrument
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 viii. Vibrating-reed instrument
ix. Non-insulated thermo-couple (thermal converter)
x. Insulated thermocouple (thermal converter)
xi. Electronic device in a measuring circuit

Use & Application of Instruments

Type of Instrument Suitability Major uses Deflecting Torque

PMMC (d’Arsonval D.C.(Only) Most widely used meter for d.c. current, Td α I
type) voltage and resistance measurements.
Good accuracy.
Moving Iron A.C. (D.C. Inexpensive type used for currents and Td α I2
also voltages at power frequency. Also used
possible in indicators/ panels.
with Not very accurate.
correction)
Rectifier D.C. or It is combination of rectifier and PMMC Td α I
A.C. instruments. Good for variable (Rectified)
frequency measurement including power
frequency.
Good for low impedance circuits.
Electrodynamometer Both D.C. Widely used for precise power Td α I1I2
and A.C. measurements. Used as standard meter
for calibration (AC/DC) and called as
transfer instrument. Alsoused for
precise a.c. current and voltage
measurements at power frequencies.
Heating effect Both A.C. Used for ac current, voltage and power Td α I or V
& D.C. measurement at variable or radio (any type
frequency. Used for distorted or non- Wave form)
sinusoidal waveforms..
Thermocouple D.C. or Measurement of voltage, power etc. at Td α e or I V
(Heating effect) A.C. variable or radio frequency. Used for (any type
distorted or non-sinusoidal waveforms. Wave form)
Induction type A.C. only Current, voltage, power & energy Td α I1I2sinδ Td α φ1φ2
measurement. Sin δ

Electrostatic D.C. (or Measurement of high voltages. Td α I2

A.C. at one
frequency)
Hall effect A.C. & For power and current measurement, AC Td α φ I or IV or I
D.C. or DC current probes and also used as
transducers for current & power.
2. Basic Measuring Instruments: The Basic measuring instruments commonly used in the laboratories are
the instruments needed to measure the basic electrical quantities such as currents and voltages and include
ammeters, voltmeters and multi-meters.

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(a) Ammeters and Voltmeters: The ammeters, used to measure electric currents with very low
internal resistance are used in series with the load. Voltmeters have high internal impedance and
are connected in parallel with the load to measure voltages. Both instruments have their terminals
marked with + & - polarities and should be carefully used with correct polarities. These
instruments are available in different ranges and are accordingly named e.g., micro-ammeters,
milli-ammeters, milli-voltmeters etc. The voltmeters draw negligible amount of current from the
circuit under measurement and its sensitivity is expressed in ohms per volt. Typically a meter
movement having a 1 ma full-scale current has a sensitivity of 1000 Ohms/Volt whereas if the
full-scale current is 100 microampere, the sensitivity is designated as 10,000 Ohms/Volt. The
higher the ohms-per-volt rating, the more sensitive is the meter and the smaller is the loading
effect on the circuit. A good voltmeter has sensitivity between 20,000 – 100,000 Ohms/V.

Precautions:
(i) Higher voltages/currents should never be measured on low-range meters.
(ii) The meters must always be connected to the circuits with correct polarities.
(iii) For accurate measurement, the meters must be kept stationary in horizontal position.

(b) Multi-meters: It incorporates voltmeter, ammeter and ohmmeter into one case, and same
meter movement is utilized for all of them. Generally it has three switches – the function switch
which selects the type of measurement viz. current, voltage or resistance, the range switch, which
selects different ranges, and the mode switch which selects the ac or dc mode of operation. Two
types of multi-meters are generally available in the laboratories – Analog and Digital. In digital
multi-meters, digital panel meter consisting of LCD or LED display with A-to-D converter and
some processing circuitry replaces the meter movement. Batteries are used as a power supply in
most solid-state multi-meter.

(i) Analog multi-meter: A typical AMM, which is widely used in laboratories, is SIMPSON
Model 260-6M. It has 8 ranges for dc voltage measurement, 6 ranges for ac voltage measurement,
5 ranges for dc current, 3 ranges for resistance measurement, and 1 for power measurement in
dBs as marked on the front panel. It has a single switch serving the functions of both mode and
function switches.

(ii) Digital Multi-meters: Generally DMMs available in the laboratories are hand-held and
autoranging having a power ON/OFF switch and separate jacks for measurements and are so
simple to use that needs no explanation. DMMs are becoming more common and are replacing
the analog multimeters (AMMs) in the laboratories today.

3. Power Supplies: The electronic circuits employing active devices need dc voltages for their
operation, which are derived from ac mains and should be free from ripples and independent of
any variation in the ac mains voltage or in the load current drawn by the circuit itself. The
equipment providing such voltages are called Regulated Power Supply (RPS) Units. Fixed,
Variable and Dual RPS are needed in the laboratories and therefore, Multi-output RPS is
commonly available in various laboratories. As a sample RPS, the APLAB transistorized RPS
Unit is described as follows:
The APLAB Multi Output RPS Model 7711: This power supply delivers three outputs.
(i) 0-30V dc output continuously variable with 2 Amps capacity. This output is suitable for
general purpose.
(ii) 5V pre-set dc output with 5 Amps. Capacity suitable for digital integrated circuits.
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(iii) A symmetrical dual supply +15V, 0, -15 pre-set dc output with 500mA capacity, suitable
for linear IC circuits. All the outputs of Model 7711 are floating (i.e., neither any of the +ve
output neither terminals nor any of the –ve output terminals nor any point within the regulator
circuitry is connected to ground).

Description:

Input & output termination: The unit works from 230V ac supply through a mains cable with a
3pin plug, with a ground terminal for the safety of working personnel. All the output terminals are
provided on the front panel and are marked clearly.

Metering & panel controls:

+30V/2A Section: Two separate front panel meters continuously monitor the output voltage &
load current. The least count of the voltmeter is 0.5V on the scale 0-30V and that of the ammeter
is 50ma on 0-2.5A scale. Coarse and Fine controls are provided on the front panel for setting the
output voltage & current within the specified ranges.

Symmetrical Dual PS & +5V Sections: A single panel meter monitors, either +15V or –15V or
+5V section output, with the help of selector push switch provided on the front panel. The meter
has two scales. One is 4 to 6V and the other is12-18V. The least count of the 4-6V scale is 0.2V
and that of 12V to 18V is 0.5V. One sepwerate control is provided to adjust the output voltage
of +5V section from 4.5V to 5.5V and another one to adjust output voltage (+) & (-) 15V supply
section from ±12V to ±18V. The maximum load-current supplied by 5V section is 5.0Amps.
And that for Symmetrical Dual Supply section is 500mA.

Protection & Indication:

The outputs of all the three sections are fully protected against over loads & short circuits by
means of fold back characteristics. The outputs automatically reset after removal of over load. A
built-in “Crowbar Circuit” operates and reduces the output voltage below 2V in case output
voltage tends to exceed the crowbar limit (approx.6.2V) to protect the supply from over voltage.
The availability of the output voltages are indicated by the three red LED’s marked 5V, +15V &
-15V provided on the front panel.
The regulation is less than 0.1% and the ripples are less than 1mV. This supply can be used as
CV or CC supply. For setting the current limit of the 30V section, short-circuit the output
terminals and adjust the Current (COARSE & FINE controls) until the panel meter reads the
desired value. Leave the pots in this adjusted mode. The supply will now operate within the set
voltage & current limits and will crossover from voltage mode to current mode when the load
increases or vice-versa. The current limit of the other sections is pre-set, both output voltage &
load current will start falling simultaneously.

4. Digital and electronic instruments: These instruments are being widely used for general
purpose (e.g. digital multimeters) and special applications (e.g. digital energy meters). Now, it is
available at low cost and with good accuracy. Sometimes many measuring features are clubbed
together without any additional cost.

Digital Multimeter (DMM 4011)

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Introduction
• Hand-held
• Compact Light-weight
• High class Engineering & rugged design ensures very reliable performance.
• DC/AC Volts.
• DC/AC Currents.
• Resistance, Capacitance, and Frequency Measurement.
• Diode Testing & Continuity Testing.
• Transistor hFE measurement.
• 10A Fuse protected.
• Palm size.

Technical Specifications
Function Range Accuracy Input Max.Input
Impedance
DC Voltage 200mV ±0.5% of rdg ± 1D 10MΩ 1000 VDC or Peak
2V-20V-200V ±0.6% of rdg ±1D AC
1000V
AC Voltage 200mV ±1.0% of rdg ± 4D 10MΩ 750 V rms
(50500Hz) 2V-20V-200V ±1.5% of rdg ±4D 300V rms at 200
750V mV
DC Current 2-20-200mA ±1.2% of rdg ± 1D Burden Volts Protection
10A ±2% of rdg ± 4D
0.7 V 0.5A/250V Fuse
10A/250V Fuse
10A/60Sec. Max.
Test Condition 500
Resistance 200Ω ±1.0% of rdg ± 3D 3V DC VDC or AC Peak
2V-2000KΩ ±0.8% of rdg ± 3D 0.3 V DCV
20MW ±3.0% of rdg ± 3D
Diode Test Voltage 2V
Test Current (1 ± 0.6mA)
Capacitance 2000pF ±5% of rdg ± 400Hz-50mV
20-200nF 10D
2-20µF
Frequency (Auto 2KHz-15MHz ± 0.5% of rdg ± Trig-Lo-1Vrms
Range) 1D Trig-Hi-2Vrms
HFE 0-1000 Ib=10µA approx. Vca<3.5V

Continuity: 200Ω Beeper Sounds < 40Ω + 20Ω

Resolution: For DC V & AC V : 100µV
For DC & AC A : 1µA
Res: 0.1Ω Freq: 10Hz
Large size LCD Display: 3½ Digit – 1999 counts

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Auto zero/Auto Polarity
Over Range indication
2.5 Measurement/Sec.
Power – 9V Battery: typical – 225 Hours. Low Battery Indication
Operating Condition: 0-50oC – 75%RH
Dimensions (mm): 151H x 70W x 38D
Weight: 200g with Battery. (Subject to change)

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

Voltage Measurements
1. Connect the red test lead to the “VΩA” jack and the black test lead to the “COM” jack.
2. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired voltage range and slide the “AC/DC”
selector switch to the desired voltage type. If magnitude of voltage is not known, set
switch to the highest range and reduce until a satisfactory reading is obtained.
3. Connect the test leads to the device or circuit being measured.
4. For DC a (-) sign is displayed for negative polarity: positive polarity is implied.

Current Measurements
1. Set the function/Range switch to the desired current range and slide the “AC/DC”
selector switch to the desired current type.
2. For current measurements less than 200mA connect the red test lead to the “VΩA” jack
and the black test lead to the “COM” jack.
3. For current measurements of 200mA or greater, connect the red test lead to the 10A jack
& the black test lead to the “COM” jack. (10A for max. 60 sec.).
4. Remove power from the circuit under test and open the normal circuit path where the
measurement is to be taken. Connect the meter in series with the circuit.

Resistance and Continuity Measurements

1. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired resistance range or continuity position.
2. Remove power from the equipment under test.
3. Connect the red test lead to the “VΩA” jack and the black test lead to the “COM” jack.
4. Touch the probes to the test points. In ohms, the value indicated in the display is the
measured value of resistance. In continuity test, the beeper sounds continuously, if the
resistance is less than 40Ω±20Ω.

Diode Tests
1. Connect the red test lead to the “VΩA” jack. And the black test lead to the “COM” jack.
2. Set the Function/Range switch to the “├” position.
3. Turn off power to the circuit under test.
4. Touch probes to the diode. A forward voltage drop is about 0.6V (typical for a silicon
diode).
5. Reverse probes, if the diode is good. “OL” is displayed, if the diode is shorted, “000” or
another number is displayed.
6. If the diode is open “OL” is displayed in both directions.

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 7. If the junction is measured in a circuit and a low reading is obtained with both lead
connections, the junction may be shunted by a resistance of less than 1kΩ. In this case
the diode must be disconnected from the circuit for accurate testing.

CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS

1. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired F (capacitance) range.

2. Never apply an external voltage to the Cx sockets. It may result in damage to the meter.
3. Insert the capacitor leads directly into the Cx socket.
4. Read the capacitance directly from the display.

Frequency Measurements
1. Set the Function/Range switch to the Hz position.
2. Connect the red test lead to the “VΩA” jack and black test lead to the “COM” jack.
3. Connect the test leads to the point of measurement and read the frequency from the
display.

Transistor HFE Measurements

1. Set the Function/Range switch to the desired hFE range (PNP or NPN type transistor).
2. Never apply an external voltage to the hFE socket. Damage to the meter may result.
3. Plug the transistor directly into the hFE socket. The sockets are labeled E,B, and C for
emitter, base & collector. Read the transistor hFE (dc gain) directly from the display.

Safety Instructions:
• Don’t use DMM if it is or test leads look damaged, or if meter not operating properly.
• Take caution while working above 60VDC or 30VACrms.Such voltages pose a shock
hazard.
• When using the probes, keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the probes.
• Measuring voltage, which exceeds the limits of the multimeter, may damage the meter
and expose the operator to a shock hazard. Always recognize the meter voltage limits as
stated on the front of the meter.
• Remove test leads before changing battery or performing servicing.

• Fuse replacement: If no current measurement possible, check for a blown overload

protection fuse. There are two fuses: F1 for the “VΩA” jack and F2 for the 10A jack. For
access to fuses, remove the two screws from the back of the meter and lift off the fuses.
Replace F1with the original type 0.5A/250V, fast acting fuse. Replace F2 only with the
original type 10A/250V, fast acting fuse.
• Battery Replacement: Power is supplied by a 9 volt battery. To replace the battery,
remove the two screws from the back of the meter and lift off the front case. Remove
battery from battery contacts.

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 Experiment Sheets

Measurement Lab
(EEEC-3930)
List of Experiments:
1. To determine the capacitance of unknown capacitor by Schering bridge method.
2. To study of construction of LVDT and to draw its input and output characteristics to find its
linear range of operation.
3. To measure the strain in a bar specimen using strain-gauge method.
4 To determine the phase angle and ratio error of a current transformer by Petch-Elliot method

5.To determine the B-H curve of a ring specimen of cast iron by the ballistic galvanometer.
6. Separation of iron losses in magnetic sheet steel by Lloyd-Fisher square method.
7. Data Acquisition & Simulation by LABVIEW (NI ELVIS).

8. Study about Arduino and its application with (i) Blinking LED
(ii)Traffic light controller

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 Experiment 1

Experiments: Measurement of capacitance by Schering Bridge.

Object: To determine the capacitance of unknown capacitor by Schering Bridge at

different frequencies.

Theory: Schering Bridge is widely used for measurement of dielectric losses and
power factor of lossy capacitors at high voltage. Moreover, this method is one the
best methods of measurement of small capacitance at low voltages with high
precision.

The test capacitor is represented by either series or parallel combination of

equivalent-series resistor (ESR) or equivalent-parallel resistor. It can be
represented by r and C1, where r is the loss component of capacitor. The dissipation
factor or tan δ or D=ω C4R4= C1r1. If the angular frequency, ω is fixed, the variation
(dial) of capacitor C4 can be calibrated to read the dissipation factor directly.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit shown in figure.

2. Adjust R4 and C4 to obtain the balance condition.
3. Change the frequency from audio oscillator and check the gain for the
balance condition. The electronic null detector indicates the balance
condition where its deflection is minimum.

Observations:

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Frequency C4 R3 R4 C1 C2 r1

Sample calculations:

Results: C1 =

r1 =

tan δ

Reports:

1. Draw the phasor diagram of Shearing Bridge.

2. Why this bridge is used for measurement of small capacitance?
3. What are the other methods of measurement of capacitance?

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 Experiment 2

Experiment: Study of Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT).

Object: To study the construction of LVDT and to draw its input output
characteristics and find its linear range of operation.

Theory: A linear variable differential transformer is a transducer for linear

displacement measurement. It is transformer with movable core single primary and
two secondary coils. When core is at mean position, flux linkage with two
secondary coils remains same, since the two secondary coils are connected in phase
opposition the output voltage is zero. When core is moved in one direction the
induced any flux of one secondary winding will be more than the other the output
voltage increases either in positive or negative direction.
It can be said that the magnitude of output voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the core away from the centre and polarities are determined by
direction of the core.

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Observations:

Position of core Output voltage (volt) Output voltage (volt)

(mm) (Forward) (Reverse)

Graph: Plot the graph between core position and output voltage.

Result: The linear range of LVDT is:

Report:

1. Comments on the graph.

2. Write applications of LVDT.
3. What are other transducers available for displacement measurement?

Inst-4/1

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 Inst-5/1

Experiment 3

Experiment: Measurement of strain by a strain-gauge.

Object: To measure strain in a bar specimen using electrical resistance gauge and
verification of the same by measuring the deflection in the bar. By

Theory: The stain developed in a body, experiencing an elongation in the length

due to application of force is given by
Stress
Strain
Young' s modules

The unit of strain is defined as the ratio of change in length in a particular direction
to the original length in that direction. It can be measured by straining a fine resistor
wire (or fine mesh of resistor wire) known as resistance strain gauge. Due to strain,
the resistance of the gauge changes. This change in resistance is a measure of the
strain. If G is the gauge factor of the strain gauge then the strain is given by
ΔR
G
R

A mesh type strain-gauge (fine wire resistor) can be placed with and sticking to
the bar specimen. In this way, the strain in a bar specimen, placed on two supports,
can be found by measurement of the resistance.
Procedure- A bar specimen is placed on two supports. A mesh type strain-gauge
(fine wire resistor) is placed with and sticking to the bar specimen. The strain in
the bar, between two edges (supports) is varied with the help of variation of loading
of known weights on the bar. A Wheatstone bridge is used to determine the
resistance of the given resistance (strain-gauge).
Support the bar specimen between two edges and strain it by means of known
weights as shown in figure. Keep the resistance of three arm same i.e. R 2 = R3 =
R4. Vary R`2 which is a high resistance connected in parallel with R2 such that the
bridge is balanced. The galvanometer deflection is zero again.
If R = Resistance of strain gauge (unstrained) and
R1 = Resistance of strain gauge (strained)

Then, R1 = R2 R2/ / R2+ R2/ Knowing R1, the change in resistance (R1-R) can be
calculated from where strain can be determined. Measure also the deflection of the

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bar specimen when strained using the dial gauge and calculate the strain using the
expression.
6δd
Strain = -------
L2
Where δ = deflection of bar specimen, d = thickness of bar specimen,
and L = Distance between the supports
Observations:
Resistance of the strain gauge = R =
Gauge factor =
Width of the bar specimen =
Thickness of the bar specimen =
Distance R2 to bring Galvanometer Deflection in the bar
S.No. Wt. between Deflection to zero specimen
supports shown by dial gauge.

Inst-5/2
Circuit Diagram:
a
R 2'
R 2

d b
G

R 4 R 3

2 V

Figure: Wheat stone bridge for the measurement of strain.

Report

1. Calculate the young’s modulus of the specimen.

2. What is a dummy gauge? What are its purposes?
3. How the sensitivity of the bridge measurement can be increased?
4. When using electric strain gauges of the bonded type, what conditions must
be maintained?

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 Experiment 4

Testing of a current transformer for ratio and phase angle errors by Petch-Elliot
method.

Object:

1. To study the construction, circuit diagram and operation of Petch Elliot Testing
set.
2. To determine the phase angle and ratio errors of the current transformer at
different currents and burdens.

Theory: When a current transformer is used for measuring current and in order that
it shall not introduce an error into the measurement, it is essential that secondary
current shall be definite and known fraction of primary current. The current ratio
of the transformer, however, differs from the turns ration by an amount which
depends upon the magnitude of the exciting current of the transformer, and upon
the current, and power factor of the secondary circuit. The current ratio is,
therefore, not constant under all conditions of load and frequency.
In general this error is known as ratio error which is given by

Normal Ratio -- Actual Ratio

Actual Ratio
It largely depends upon the value of the iron loss component I e of the exciting
current Io, where Ie =Io sin Where = angle between Io and the working flux. If
the phase angle of the total burden is assumed zero, the actual ratio, R, is given by

R = n + (Ie/ Is) where n = turn ratio and Is = secondary current

The ratio error is considered to be positive when the actual ratio of the transformer
is less than the nominal ratio. While measuring power, it is necessary that the phase
angle of the secondary current shall be displaced by exactly 180 o from that of the
primary current. In general, this condition is not fulfilled but that the transformer
has a phase angle error which may introduce appreciable error in power
measurements.
The phase angle error depends upon the magnetizing component Im, where Im =
Io.cos ά and the error is expressed as Im/NIs. This error is considered to be positive
when the reversed secondary current leads the primary current.

Procedure:

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i) Connect S and X CTS together with any necessary burdens and vibration
galvanometer
ii) Set knife selector switch to suit secondary current of transformer under test.
iii) Set ratio and phase rheostats to zero, set Galvanometer sensitivity control to
minimum and range key to “check” position.
iv) Bring up primary current to about 10% full rating. If polarity of connections
is correct, there will be no appreciable galvanometer deflection. If there is
marked deflection, connections of S or X should be reversed.
v) Increase primary current to required value, and move range key “X5”
position. Move galvanometer sensitivity control away from zero until a
minimum deflection is obtained. If the movement increases the deflection,
throw the reversing key. Then repeat with the phase error rheostate which
can be moved until no deflection indicates balance.
vi) The galvanometer sensitivity control can be progressively moved from
minimum towards maximum when the balance position will be more sharply
defined.
vii) If the position of the two rheostats is such that the error is within the lower
range, the range key be moved to “X1” and the balance operation repeated.
viii) The above procedure may then be repeated for other values of primary
current.

Observations:
S.No. Current Range Ratio Ratio-dial Phase angle Phase angle Burden
Switch Switch switch
% Dial (min)

Circuit Diagram:
Prim ary Phase
Error
Current
B D

'S' C.T 'X' C.T

Ratio error
S S

Sec . Spill
Ratio error A
Current of Current
Winding
AutoTransformer
"X"
"Spill" Winding
Galvo Winding
Secondary
G Current of "S"

Phase Error
Winding
Calibrated
Galvo Winding
Slide
W ires C ondenser

19
 230
V

Load

115 V

M P L M P L

Std. Test
K
C.T. C.T.
M SL M SL

Burden

Result:
Current Ratio error Phase angle error
S.No Set Std. error Net Set Std error Net error
. Reading error Reading

Reports:
1. What is the difference between a C .T. (current transformer) and P.T?
(Potential transformer)?
2. What do you understand by the term burden of current transformer?
3. Mention the factors on which the phase angle and ratio error depends.
4. Plot the graph phase angle error and % ratio error of the C.T. against %full Load
current and discussed them.

20
 Experiment 5
Inst-6/1

Experiment: Determination of B-H curve of magnetic material by the Ballistic

Galvanometer method.
Object: To determine the B-H curve of a ring specimen of cast iron by the Ballistic
Galvanometer method.

Theory: The ‘throw’ of a ballistic galvanometer is proportional to the quantity of

electricity passed through it and hence to the change in flux linkage of the search
coil connected to the galvanometer terminals. When the current in the magnetizing
winding is reversed the ‘throw’ of the ballistic galvanometer is a measure of the
flux in the specimen. The calibration of the galvanometer is carried out by means
of the Hibbert’s Magnetic standard (HMS).
Procedure: Connect the magnetizing winding to variable D.C. supply through a
reversing switch and an ammeter and the search coil through a resistance box and
Hibbert’s Magnetic standard (Fig.1).
First demagnetize the magnetic ring specimen to its cyclic state. To do so the short
circuiting key is left closed and the current is increased in the magnetizing winding
to its maximum rating say 3A. This current is reduced gradually to zero and
simultaneously it is reversed quickly again and again by DPDT. Now increase the
current and note the ‘throw’ of the ballistic galvanometer when the current is
reversed. Increase the current further and observe ‘throw’ of the galvanometer for
this current. Continue the process until the current in the magnetizing winding
reaches the maximum value. For the calibration of the ballistic galvanometer
release the trigger of the Hibbert’s Magnetic standard and note the ‘throw’ of the
galvanometer. The constant of the latter can be calculated from the ‘throw’.

a) The scale of the lamp and scale arrangement should be so adjusted that
deflection on either side of the scale is the same for the same steady current
through the galvanometer.
b) The position of the galvanometer and the setting of the resistance-box must not
be altered during the experiment.
c) A key which can short-circuit the galvanometer should be provided to bring the
spot of light quickly to the zero position.

For the determination of the hysteresis loop, use step by step method. After
reaching the point of maximum H, the magnetizing current is next reduced in steps
by moving switch S2 (Fig.2) down through the tapping points. As the magnetizing
force is reduced the ‘throw’ of the galvanometer gives the corresponding decrease
21
in flux density, B. After the reduction of the magnetizing force to zero, negative
values of H are obtained by reversing the switch S: (Fig.1) and then switch S2
(Fig.2) is then moved in steps as before.

Observations:

S. No. Ammeter reading Galvanometer deflections

Circuit Diagram:
c R
A

12 V P S

S
Key G
c'

HMS

Fig - 1

S1 c

S2

c'

Fig - 2

Results:

Draw the B-H curve of the given specimen.

Reports:
1. What are the others methods to calibrating the Ballistic Galvanometer?
2. Is hysteresis a time leg? What is its effect on electrical apparatus?
3. Permanent magnetic materials have larger hysteresis loss. why?
4. Why is it important to know the B.H characteristics of magnetic materials?
5. Draw the B.H. Curve of the given specimen?
22
 Experiment 6
Experiment: Separation of iron losses in magnetic sheet steel by Lloyd-Fisher
Square method.
Object: To separate hysteresis and eddy current losses by the above method.

Theory: The total iron loss in a magnetic material is sum of hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss. Thus,
Total Iron Loss = Hysteresis Loss + Eddy Current Loss.

Wi = K1.f + K2f2 where Bmax is constant

Wi/f = K1 + K2f

If the graph is drawn between Wi/f and f would, therefore, be a straight line.
Knowing K1 and K2, the hysteresis and eddy-current losses at any frequency can
be determined separately for a particular maximum flux density (Bmax )
(Ref. Golding and Widdis: Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments)

Procedure: Standard size of test strips (25 cms x 7 cms) formed into equal bundles
of 7 in each, and are inserted into the square and clamped firmly with the help of
non-magnetic clamps with L-shaped corner pieces; the overlap of the corner pieces
being uniforms of about 3mm. The magnetizing winding of the LIoyd-Fisher
square consists of 1000 turns, divided in four coils each of 250 turns, connected in
series and uniformly distributed over the length of each strip. There are four search
coils B1, B2, B3, B4 having 640, 320, 160 and 80 turns respectively.

Identification of the search coil should be made so that the measured voltage across
the voltmeter may be about 30-40 volts. The sine wave alternator (in the Machine
Lab) should be run at 750 rpm which corresponds to a frequency of 25 Hz. The
current in the magnetizing winding is adjusted, by the variac control, so that the
flux density in the specimen is 0.75 tesla (variac control is used as otherwise form
factor may change).

This can be verified by the voltmeter, connected across a search coil (E = 4Kf Bmax
A.f.N2 volts). The magnetizing current and corresponding deflection in the
voltmeter, are noted. The frequency is varied from 25 to 55 Hz and a set of readings
is taken.

Observations & Calculations:

23
Iron Loss: Grade of Iron
X-section areas of test strips A2 = 2.49 cm2
Form Factor ………………………………………………. .1.11
Length of overlap ……………. 8 × 0.3 = 2.4 cms.
X-areas (mean) of search coils, As in sq. cms
B4 = 12.8, B3 = 15
Inst-7/2

B2 = 17.20, B1 = 19.6
Resistance of pressure coil of wattmeter = 13, 100 ohms
Resistance of current coil of wattmeter = 0.2 ohm
Resistance of search coils in ohms:
B4 = 0.49, B3 = 1.07
B2 = 2.24, B1 = 4.61
Number of turns in magnetizing winding Nh = 1000

Particulars Frequency
f = 20 f = 40 f = 60 f = 80

1. Magnetizing current
2. Magnetizing force, Hm
3. Voltmeter reading
4. No. of turns in search coil for voltmeter
5. Max-flux density Bmax (apparent)
As – A2
6. Connection for flux density b = ---------- . Hm
A2
7. True max flux density Bmax = B´max – b
8. No. of turns is search coil for p.c. of wattmeter (NB)
Nh
9. Actual watts, W = watts indicated * -----
NB
10.Watts lost in p.c. = Wp
11.Watts lost in search coil = Ws
12.Watts lost in c.c. = Wc.c.
13.Corrected Wattmeter reading Wc = W – Wp – Ws – Wcc
14.True watts loss taking overlap into account Wi = Wc/(1 – 1.4C)

8 * mean overlap in cms

where, C = ------------------------------
100
24
15.Wi/f
16.K1
17.K2
18.Hysteresis loss
19.Eddy current loss

Inst-7/3 Circuit Diagram:

Results:
Frequency Hz 20 40 60 80
Hysteresis Loss
Eddy current Loss

Reports:
1. Why are the eddy current losses as measured by the square relatively
smaller than found in actual practice?
2. 2. What is the effect of overlap at joints on the total iron loss?

25
 Experiment No 7

Object: To measure THD and Harmonic components of different light loads using NI-DAQ
device and LabVIEW

Apparatus Used: NI-9221 DAQ device, NI cDAQ chasis -9174, LabVIEW 2012 SP1

Theory: Harmonic distortion is caused by the loads which draw nonlinear current from the
supply. Harmonics are the integral multiple of the frequency for which the instrument is
designed to operate. THD depends upon the kind of load connected. The more the waveform
deviates from the normal sinusoid, the greater the THD value. For a nonlinear load (CFL, LED
lamp) the THD value is much more as compared to the measured THD value for a linear load
(incandescent lamp).
Mathematically, the THD is obtained as in equation 1.

I
n=2
n
2

THDI =
I1
… Eqn 1

V
2
n
n=2
THDV =
V1

The subscript 1 is for the fundamental component and rest corresponds to the various harmonic
components.
The operation of customer’s sensitive loads which have nonlinear behavior, produce current
harmonics during their operations. The current harmonics in addition to the network
disturbances generate different distortions in the power supply voltage waveform at the
consumer’s POC and their by cause poor PQ of the electric supply. The domestic
con sume rs use dive rs e susceptible e lec troni c devices i.e. Personal computer (PC),
digital video recorder (DVD), micro-oven, digital LCDs, LEDs etc. These devices are
susceptible and responsive to various PQ disturbances. All these domestic appliances have
nonlinear current features that generate current harmonics in the network and distort the
supply voltage waveform in addition to the network disturbances. The wide use of energy
efficient lamps, such as compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) with electronic ballast, is
generally promoted as it promotes usage of lesser active power when compared to the
conventional incandescent lamps. The drawback with the CFL/LED is that they tend to produce
the reactive power and harmonic distortions much more than the incandescent lamps.

26
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure to develop a VI
1. Acquire real time data from available physical channels using DAQ Assistant
Path: Measurement I/O NI-DAQmx DAQ Assist.

2. Split the acquired signal at different nodes for measurement.

Path: Express Sig Manip Split Signals

3. Scale the acquired signal to its rated value

Path: Electric power Power Quality Scaling & calibration Scaling

4. Create graph indicator at each nodes

5. Add indicator at each nodes to measure RMS voltage, current, THD & harmonic
component
Path: Signal Processing Wfm Measure Basic DC/RMS
Harmonic Analyzer

5. Add a delay as per required

Path: Programming Timing Wait (ms)
6. Put the developed VI in a while loop
Path: Programming Structure While loop

27
Block Diagram:

Observation

Conclusion:
Report:
1. What is virtual instrumentation? Differentiate between vendor and user defined
instruments
2. Explain (a) THD (b) Harmonics, under harmonics and inter harmonics.
3. Discuss the effects of harmonics on electrical power components
4. Explain how commercial and industrial loads are responsible for harmonic distortion.

28
 Experiment 9

Experiment:
Object(i) Study about Arduino and perform Example Blinking LED
(ii)Traffic light controller using Arduino

The key components of an Arduino are the Arduino board, the IDE, and the; libraries. The
Arduino board is the hardware that you will be using to create project. The IDE is the software
that you will use to write your code and upload it to the board. The libraries are collection of
code that you can use to simplify your project or add functionality.

Roads without any supervision or guidance can lead to traffic conflicts and accidents. Traffic
signals are required for an orderly flow of traffic. A traffic signal is used as an instructing device
that indicates the road user to act as per the displayed sign.

Traffic lights allow everyone to cross the intersection point one by one, reducing conflicts
between vehicles entering intersection points from different directions. It provides road safety,
also helps to solve traffic in simple manners.

There are different colors in traffic lights. Each light has a meaning, and these lights tell drivers
what to do.

• Red light ON- A driver should stop.

• Yellow light ON- A driver has to slow down and be ready to stop.
• Greenlight ON- A driver can start driving or keep driving.

29
Procedure
• Connect the GND pin (negative pin) of all LED to pin GND of Arduino.

• Connect Red LED VCC pin (positive pin) to pin 9

• Connect Yellow LED VCC pin (positive pin) to pin 8

• Connect Green LED VCC pin (positive pin) to pin 9

• Run the code

Make sure that Arduino is connected to your PC.
Click upload and wait until the status is done.

Result

Report:
1. What is Arduino?
2. Explain how a microcontroller works.
3. Give some examples of real-world applications of Arduino?

30