Computer Network - Unit 4

Topic: TCP/IP Protocol

TCP/IP, or Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is like the language
that computers use to talk to each other over the internet. It's made up of two
main parts: TCP and IP.
First, let's talk about TCP. Think of TCP as the careful messenger that ensures your
data arrives safely. It breaks your information into small packets and sends them
across the internet. Then, it checks to make sure all the packets arrive at their
destination. If any packet gets lost or arrives out of order, TCP asks for it to be
sent again until everything arrives correctly. This way, you can be sure your
message gets through intact.
Now, let's move on to IP. IP is like the postal system of the internet. It's
responsible for addressing and routing your data packets to the right destination.
Every device connected to the internet has its own unique IP address, similar to a
house address. When you send data, IP makes sure it gets to the correct device,
no matter where it is in the world.
Together, TCP/IP forms the backbone of the internet, allowing computers to
communicate reliably and efficiently. Whether you're sending emails, browsing
websites, or streaming videos, TCP/IP ensures that your data travels safely across
the vast network of interconnected devices that make up the internet.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Imagine the TCP/IP protocol suite as a toolbox full of tools that help computers
communicate over the internet. It's like a set of rules and procedures that guide
how data is transmitted and received.
At the core of the TCP/IP suite are two main protocols: TCP and IP. TCP, or
Transmission Control Protocol, is like a careful messenger that ensures your data
packets arrive safely at their destination. It breaks down your information into
small
pieces called packets, sends them across the internet, and then checks to make
sure they all arrive correctly.
IP, or Internet Protocol, is like the postal system of the internet. It's responsible
for addressing and routing your data packets to the right destination. Every device
connected to the internet has its own unique IP address, similar to a house
address. IP makes sure your data gets to the correct device, no matter where it is
in the world.
In addition to TCP and IP, the TCP/IP suite includes other protocols that handle
tasks like email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), and web browsing (HTTP). Together,
these protocols form the foundation of internet communication, allowing
computers to exchange data reliably and efficiently across the world.

Internet Architecture Board

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is like a group of smart people who help
make important decisions about how the internet works. It's kind of like the brain
behind the scenes that helps keep everything running smoothly.
The IAB oversees the technical evolution of the internet and sets standards to
ensure that different parts of the internet can talk to each other properly. It's
responsible for things like deciding how data should be transmitted, how devices
should connect to the internet, and how security and privacy should be
maintained.
Think of the IAB as a group of experts who collaborate with other organizations
and communities to shape the future of the internet. They work together to
address challenges, improve technologies, and ensure that the internet remains a
reliable and accessible resource for everyone.
TCP/IP Protocol:-
1. TCP
TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol, is like a careful guide that ensures your
data travels safely and reliably across the internet. It's one of the main protocols
used for communication between devices on the internet.
Here's how TCP works: Imagine you're sending a message to a friend. TCP breaks
your message into smaller pieces called packets. These packets are like tiny
envelopes containing parts of your message. TCP then sends these packets across
the internet to your friend's computer.
But TCP doesn't just send the packets and hope for the best. It also checks to
make sure they all arrive at their destination. If any packets get lost along the way
or arrive out of order, TCP asks for them to be sent again until everything arrives
correctly. This way, your message gets through intact, even if there are bumps in
the road.
Important Features / Functions of TCP
1. Breaking Down Data: TCP takes the information you want to send, like a
webpage or an email, and breaks it into small pieces called packets. These
packets are like individual pieces of a puzzle.
2. Sending Packets: TCP sends these packets across the internet to their
destination. It's like sending small parcels through the mail.
3. Ensuring Delivery: TCP keeps track of all the packets it sends and makes
sure they arrive at their destination. It checks if any packets are missing or
arrive out of order and asks for them to be sent again until everything
arrives correctly. This ensures that your message gets through intact, even
if there are bumps along the way.
4. Verification: Once all the packets arrive, TCP verifies that everything is in
the right order and puts them back together. It's like assembling the pieces
of a puzzle to reveal the complete picture.
 2. UDP
UDP, or User Datagram Protocol, is a simple and speedy way for computers to
communicate over the internet. Unlike some other protocols, UDP doesn't worry
too much about making sure data gets to its destination perfectly. Instead, it
focuses on sending data quickly, even if it means some data might get lost or
arrive out of order.
One of the key things about UDP is that it's connectionless. This means that it doesn't
need to establish a connection before sending data, which makes it faster than
protocols like TCP. Think of it like sending a message in a bottle – you just toss it
into the ocean and hope it gets to the right place.
UDP is often used for real-time applications where speed is more important than
reliability. This includes things like video streaming, online gaming, and VoIP
(Voice over Internet Protocol) calls.
Explain the frame format of UDP.
UDP's frame format is like a basic template for sending data over the internet.
Imagine you're sending a letter. In UDP, each letter has four important parts:
1. Source Port: This is like writing your name on the letter. It tells the receiver
who sent the data.
2. Destination Port: Just like writing the recipient's address, this tells the
receiver where the data should go.
3. Length: This part says how long the letter is, including both the actual
message and the address parts.
4. Checksum: Think of this like a secret code at the end of the letter. It helps
the receiver check if the letter got damaged during delivery.
So, UDP's frame format is a simple structure that makes it easy to send data quickly
over the internet, although it doesn't have all the fancy features of other
protocols like TCP.
TCP vs UDP
1. How They Send Data: TCP makes a connection first and sends data carefully
to ensure it arrives reliably. UDP just sends data without making a
connection, focusing on speed over reliability.
2. Reliability: TCP guarantees data arrives and in the right order. UDP doesn't
guarantee either, so data might arrive out of order or not at all.
3. Error Checking: TCP checks for and fixes errors, while UDP doesn't bother
much with that.
4. Controlling Speed: TCP controls how fast data is sent to avoid overload.
UDP just sends data as fast as it can.
5. Extra Stuff: TCP has more extra stuff to ensure reliability, making it slower.
UDP is faster because it doesn't have all that extra stuff.
6. Where They're Used: TCP is for things like websites and email, where it's
important that data arrives reliably. UDP is for stuff like online games and
video calls, where speed matters more than reliability.
7. Example: TCP is like sending a registered letter to make sure it gets there
safely. UDP is like sending a quick postcard, not worrying too much if it gets
there perfectly.
Explain TCP Segment Format in detail with the help of suitable diagrammatic
representation.
1. Source Port: This is like a return address on an envelope. It tells the
recipient where the data is coming from.
2. Destination Port: Similar to an address label on the envelope, this tells the
recipient where the data should go.
3. Sequence Number: Think of this as a unique number assigned to each piece
of data. It helps the recipient put everything in the right order, like
assembling a puzzle.
4. Acknowledgment Number: This is like a receipt or confirmation from the
recipient saying they received the data. It helps the sender know if
everything arrived safely.
5. Data Offset: This tells the recipient where the actual message begins in the
TCP segment. It's like marking the start of the letter in a long document.
6. Flags: These are special signals that indicate different conditions, such as
whether the segment contains important or urgent data.
7. Window Size: Imagine this as the size of a mailbox. It tells the sender how
much data the recipient can accept at once.
8. Checksum: This is like a digital fingerprint that helps detect if any errors
occurred during transmission, ensuring the data's integrity.
9. Urgent Pointer: If there's something urgent in the data, this points to its
location, like highlighting a crucial section in a document.
10.Options and Data: This is the actual content being sent, such as a message
or file. It's what the sender wants the recipient to receive.
 3. IP
IP, or Internet Protocol, is like the postal service of the internet, ensuring data gets
from one place to another. Every device connected to the internet, like your
computer or smartphone, has a unique IP address, similar to a house address.
This address helps routers and servers know where to send data.
When you send data over the internet, like browsing a website or sending an email,
IP breaks it into smaller pieces called packets. Each packet contains part of the
original data along with information like the sender's and recipient's IP addresses.
These packets travel through the internet, hopping from one router to another,
until they reach their destination.
Important Features / Functions of IP
1. Addresses: Just like every house has a unique address, every device
connected to the internet has a unique IP address. This address helps
routers and other devices know where to send data.
 2. Routing: When you send data over the internet, it doesn't always travel in a
straight line. IP helps routers decide the best path for the data to take to
reach its destination. It's like planning the most efficient route for a delivery
truck.
3. Packets: IP breaks down data into smaller pieces called packets. Each
packet contains a part of the original data, along with information like the
sender's IP address and the packet's sequence number. This makes it easier
to transmit data across different networks.
4. Delivery: Once the data is broken into packets, IP takes care of sending
them from the sender to the recipient. It ensures that each packet reaches
its destination, even if they take different paths or arrive out of order.
5. Reliability: While IP does its best to deliver data accurately, it doesn't
guarantee that every packet will arrive or arrive in order. That's where
other protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) come in to ensure
reliable communication.

IP Packet Format
1. Version: This tells us which version of IP is being used, like whether it's IPv4
or IPv6.
2. Header Length: It shows how long the header of the packet is, which helps
devices know where the actual data starts.
3. Type of Service: This helps prioritize packets based on their needs, like
whether they need to arrive quickly or if they can wait.
4. Total Length: This tells us how big the entire packet is, including both the
header and the actual data.
5. Identification: Each packet gets a unique ID number, which helps devices
piece together fragmented packets if they're split up during transmission.
6. Flags: These are like instructions for handling the packet, indicating if it can
be split up or if it's the last part of a split packet.
 7. Fragment Offset: If a packet is split, this tells us where each piece fits in the
original packet.
8. Time to Live (TTL): This sets a limit on how many routers the packet can
pass through before it's discarded to prevent it from looping endlessly.
9. Protocol: It tells us what kind of data the packet is carrying, like if it's for
web browsing (TCP) or sending emails (SMTP).
10.Header Checksum: This is like a digital fingerprint that helps detect if there
are any errors in the header of the packet.
11.Source IP Address: This is the address of the device that sent the packet,
like the return address on an envelope.
12.Destination IP Address: This is where the packet is going, like the address
of the recipient on an envelope.
13.Options: Sometimes, extra information is included in the header for special
purposes, like security or time stamping.
14.Padding: If needed, extra space is added to make sure the header is a
certain size, typically a multiple of 32 bits.
(Same diagram of TCP Segment Format)

4. ARD
An Augmented Reality Device (ARD) is like wearing special glasses or using a device
that adds cool stuff to what you see around you. It mixes digital things, like
pictures or videos, with the real world you're looking at. So, imagine seeing
helpful signs or fun characters right in front of you as you walk around.
These devices use smart technology, like cameras and sensors, to understand where
you are and what's around you. Then, they add virtual stuff that looks like it's part
of the real world. For instance, you could use an ARD to see arrows showing you
where to go while walking or to play games where creatures pop up in your living
room.
People use ARDs for lots of things, from playing games and watching videos to
learning and working. They make things more fun and give you useful info right
when you need it. As technology gets better, ARDs will become even more
common, changing how we see and interact with the world around us.

Physical Addressing
Physical addressing is all about making sure each device on a network has its own
special identifier. Just like how every house has its own unique address, every
device, like computers, printers, or phones, gets its own distinct code called a
MAC (Media Access Control) address.
Now, this MAC address isn't something you can change; it's like a built-in serial
number that's unique to each device. Imagine it as a fingerprint that identifies
each device separately from all the others on the network.
When data needs to be sent from one device to another, like sending a message
from your computer to a printer, the sender includes the MAC address of the
printer along with the data. Think of it like addressing an envelope with the
recipient's house address. Then, devices called routers and switches use these
MAC addresses to guide the data along the right path, just like how postal
workers use house addresses to deliver mail to the correct homes.
In essence, physical addressing ensures that data packets find their way to the
correct devices on a network by using these unique MAC addresses, much like
house addresses ensure mail gets to the right houses. It's a fundamental part of
how devices communicate and share information in computer networks.

Logical Addressing
Logical addressing is like giving devices on a network virtual addresses so they can
communicate with each other. It's similar to how people use phone numbers or
email addresses to contact each other, regardless of their physical location.
In computer networks, devices are assigned logical addresses called IP (Internet
Protocol) addresses. These addresses are made up of numbers and are used to
identify devices on the network. Unlike physical addresses (MAC addresses),
which are hard-coded into the device's hardware, IP addresses can be assigned
dynamically or manually and can change over time.
When data needs to be sent from one device to another on the network, the
sender uses the recipient's IP address to route the data to the correct destination.
Routers and switches on the network use these logical addresses to direct the
data to the appropriate device, regardless of where it physically resides. Think of
it like using someone's email address to send them a message, regardless of
where they are in the world.
In summary, logical addressing allows devices on a network to communicate with
each other using virtual addresses (IP addresses) rather than physical identifiers.
It enables data to be routed efficiently across the network, regardless of the
physical locations of the devices involved, making it a crucial aspect of network
communication.

Physical vs Logical Addressing

1. Nature of Addressing:
 Physical addressing is like giving each device its own permanent ID
number, stamped into its hardware.
 Logical addressing is more like giving devices virtual phone numbers
for communication, which can be changed or assigned as needed.
2. Level of Abstraction:
 Physical addressing deals with the actual hardware of devices, like
their built-in ID numbers.
 Logical addressing is higher up, focusing on easier-to-handle virtual
addresses for communication.
3. Uniqueness:
  MAC addresses are like fingerprints; they're unique to each device
and never change.
 IP addresses are unique in a network but can be reassigned or
change dynamically.
4. Usage:
 Physical addressing is used mainly for communication within a
specific place, like a building or campus.
 Logical addressing lets devices communicate across different places
or networks, like connecting to the internet.
5. Routing and Forwarding:
 MAC addresses help devices find each other within the same
network segment.
 IP addresses guide data across different networks, helping it find the
right path to its destination.
6. Network Layer Dependency:
 Physical addressing is like a house number, belonging to the Data
Link Layer.
 Logical addressing is more like an area code, operating at the
Network Layer.
7. Scope:
 Physical addressing is like knowing your neighbors' house numbers;
it's limited to your immediate area.
 Logical addressing lets you call or connect with people from different
neighborhoods or even countries.
8. Flexibility and Scalability:
 MAC addresses are like a stamp; once it's there, it's hard to change
or expand.
 IP addresses are more like a phonebook; they can be updated or
expanded easily to accommodate growth or changes in the network.
What is IP Addressing Scheme ? How many classes are there with addressing
schemes ? Explain.
An IP addressing scheme is a method used to allocate and manage IP addresses
within a network. IP addresses are numerical labels assigned to devices connected
to a network, allowing them to communicate with each other. The IP addressing
scheme defines how IP addresses are structured and assigned, ensuring efficient
and organized communication within the network.
There are two main types of IP addressing schemes: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4, which
stands for Internet Protocol version 4, is the most widely used IP addressing
scheme. It uses a 32-bit address space, allowing for approximately 4.3 billion
unique addresses. However, due to the rapid growth of the internet and increasing
number of connected devices, IPv4 addresses are becoming scarce.
To manage IPv4 addresses more efficiently, they are divided into classes based on
the range of IP addresses they contain. There are five classes of IPv4 addressing
schemes, namely Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E. Each class has a
different range of IP addresses, determined by the structure of the IP address
itself.
1. Class A Addresses: Class A addresses are used for large networks, with the
first octet (the first 8 bits) reserved for network identification and the
remaining three octets for host identification. The first bit of a Class A
address is always set to 0, indicating that it belongs to Class A. The range of
Class A addresses is from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.
2. Class B Addresses: Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks,
with the first two octets reserved for network identification and the
remaining two octets for host identification. The first two bits of a Class B
address are always set to 10, indicating that it belongs to Class B. The range
of Class B addresses is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
3. Class C Addresses: Class C addresses are used for small networks, with the
first three octets reserved for network identification and the last octet for
host identification. The first three bits of a Class C address are always set to
110, indicating that it belongs to Class C. The range of Class C addresses is
from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
 4. Class D Addresses: Class D addresses are reserved for multicast addresses,
used for one-to-many communication. The first four bits of a Class D
address are always set to 1110, indicating that it belongs to Class D. The
range of Class D addresses is from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
5. Class E Addresses: Class E addresses are reserved for experimental and
research purposes, and their use is not recommended for general use. The
first four bits of a Class E address are always set to 1111, indicating that it
belongs to Class E. The range of Class E addresses is from 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.
These classes help organize and allocate IP addresses efficiently within a network,
ensuring that each device has a unique identifier for communication purposes.

Classful Addressing / IP Address Classes

Classful addressing is a method used in the early days of the internet to assign IP
addresses to devices connected to a network. It divides the available IP address
space into five classes, labeled A through E, based on the range of IP addresses
they contain. Each class has a different structure and range of addresses, allowing
for efficient allocation of addresses based on the size of the network.
In classful addressing, the class of an IP address is determined by the value of the
first few bits of the address. The class also dictates how the remaining bits of the
address are divided between the network and host portions. For example, Class A
addresses have the first bit set to 0, Class B addresses have the first two bits set to
10, and Class C addresses have the first three bits set to 110. Classes D and E have
specific bit patterns reserved for multicast and experimental use, respectively.
1. Class A Addresses:
 Class A addresses are like big neighborhoods. They have a lot of
space for devices to live.
 These addresses start with a number from 1 to 126 in the first part.
 Class A addresses are used for large networks with lots of devices,
like big companies or internet service providers.
  They can have up to 16 million devices connected to them.
2. Class B Addresses:
 Class B addresses are like neighborhoods with medium-sized houses.
 They start with numbers from 128 to 191 in the first part.
 These addresses are for networks that are smaller than Class A, but
still pretty big, like universities or big offices.
 They can have up to 65,000 devices connected to them.
3. Class C Addresses:
 Class C addresses are like neighborhoods with small houses.
 They start with numbers from 192 to 223 in the first part.
 These addresses are for smaller networks, like homes or small
businesses.
 They can have up to 254 devices connected to them.
4. Class D Addresses:
 Class D addresses are special; they're not for regular houses.
 They start with numbers from 224 to 239 in the first part.
 These addresses are used for something called multicast, where one
device sends messages to lots of other devices at once.
 They're not used for regular internet connections.
5. Class E Addresses:
 Class E addresses are like empty lots; they're not really used.
 They start with numbers from 240 to 255 in the first part.
 These addresses are reserved for experimental purposes, so you
won't see them much in real networks.
 Classless Addressing
Classless addressing is like having more freedom in how we hand out addresses on
the internet. Instead of being stuck with strict address classes like big, medium,
and small neighborhoods, we can now customize addresses to fit the size of our
network more precisely.
With classless addressing, we don't have to follow rigid rules about how many
addresses are in each neighborhood. Instead, we use something called subnet
masks to decide which part of an address belongs to the network and which part
belongs to devices within that network.
Think of subnet masks like a fence dividing a big yard into smaller sections. Each
section can have its own group of devices, and we can adjust the size of the
sections based on how many devices we need to connect. This flexibility makes it
easier to manage addresses and design networks that can grow and adapt over
time.

Classful vs Classless Addressing

1. Structure:
 Classful addressing is like having set sizes for neighborhoods; each
class (A, B, C, etc.) has a fixed size.
 Classless addressing is more like customizing neighborhoods to fit
exactly how many houses you need, without being restricted to
preset sizes.
2. Flexibility:
 Classful addressing doesn't allow for much flexibility; you're stuck
with the size of the neighborhood dictated by the class.
 Classless addressing is way more flexible; you can adjust the size of
your neighborhood (network) as needed using subnetting.
3. Address Management:
  With classful addressing, you might end up with too many addresses
in a neighborhood or not enough, leading to wastage or scarcity.
 Classless addressing lets you manage addresses more efficiently by
using only what you need, avoiding waste and ensuring you have
enough for everyone.
4. Representation:
 Classful addressing doesn't use any special notation to show the size
of the neighborhood; you just have the class (A, B, C, etc.).
 Classless addressing uses something called CIDR notation, which
makes it super easy to see how big each neighborhood is and how
many houses it can have.
5. Scalability:
 Classful addressing struggles when you need to expand or shrink
neighborhoods because you're limited by the fixed sizes.
 Classless addressing is much better for scaling up or down; you can
adjust the size of your neighborhoods easily without being
constrained by predefined rules.

Subnetting
Subnetting is like dividing a big neighborhood into smaller blocks to better organize
and manage the houses within it. In computer networks, subnetting allows us to
break down a large network into smaller, more manageable parts called
subnetworks or subnets. This helps improve network performance, security, and
efficiency.
Imagine you have a big neighborhood with lots of houses, but they're all scattered
around with no clear organization. Subnetting lets you group houses together
based on their location or specific needs. Each subnet has its own unique address
range and can be managed independently. For example, you might group houses
on one street into one subnet and houses on another street into another subnet.
This way, you can control traffic flow and allocate resources more effectively.
Subnetting also enhances security by creating boundaries between different parts
of the network. It allows you to apply security measures, such as firewalls or
access control lists, to specific subnets, protecting them from unauthorized access
or attacks. Overall, subnetting is a powerful tool that helps optimize network
performance, streamline management, and enhance security in computer
networks.

Supernetting
Supernetting is like combining several smaller neighborhoods into one big
community to simplify management and routing in a network. In computer
networks, supernetting involves aggregating multiple smaller subnets into a
larger, more efficient address space. This allows for easier routing and reduces the
number of routing table entries needed in routers, making network operations
more streamlined.
Think of supernetting as merging adjacent neighborhoods with similar
characteristics or needs. By grouping these subnets together, you create a larger
address space that encompasses all the individual subnets. This simplifies routing
because routers only need to know about the larger supernet address instead of
each individual subnet, reducing the amount of routing information they need to
store and process.
Supernetting also helps conserve IP address space by minimizing the number of
addresses wasted on unnecessary subdivisions. Instead of assigning separate
address ranges for each subnet, you can allocate a single address range for the
entire supernet, optimizing address utilization. Overall, supernetting is a useful
technique for organizing and optimizing network addressing, improving routing
efficiency, and conserving IP address resources.
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Subnet Mask
Subnet masking is like putting on a pair of glasses that helps computers see which
part of an IP address belongs to the network and which part belongs to the
specific device. In computer networks, subnet masking is used in conjunction with
IP addresses to define the boundaries of subnets within a larger network. It
involves using a subnet mask, which is a special set of numbers that helps
determine the network portion of an IP address.
Imagine you have a big street with many houses, and you want to divide it into
smaller blocks or subnets. The subnet mask acts like a guide that tells each house
which block it belongs to. It does this by using a series of binary digits (0s and 1s)
to represent the network and host portions of the IP address. The subnet mask is
applied to the IP address using a process called bitwise AND operation, which
helps determine the network address.
Subnet masking allows network administrators to create smaller, more
manageable subnetworks within a larger network. This helps improve network
efficiency, security, and performance by organizing devices into logical groups and
controlling the flow of traffic.

TCP/IP Service Protocol

1. FTP
FTP, or File Transfer Protocol, is like a virtual mailman that helps you send and
receive files over the internet. It's a common way to move files between
computers, servers, and other devices. With FTP, you can upload files from your
computer to a server or download files from a server to your computer.
Using FTP is a lot like using a filing cabinet. You have folders to organize your files,
and you can move files in and out of these folders as needed. When you want to
send a file using FTP, you connect to an FTP server using special software or tools.
Once connected, you can browse through the files on the server, select the ones
you want to transfer, and then upload them to the server or download them to
your computer.
FTP is widely used for sharing files, updating websites, and accessing remote files
and data. It's a simple and reliable way to transfer files over the internet, making
it an essential tool for businesses, developers, and individuals who need to move
files between computers and servers.

2. SMTP
SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is like a digital postal service for sending
emails across the internet. It's the technology behind how emails are delivered
from one computer to another. When you hit "send" on your email, SMTP is the
system responsible for routing your message to its intended destination.
Think of SMTP as a courier service for emails. When you compose an email, your
email client uses SMTP to communicate with a mail server. The server then
processes your email, determines its recipient, and forwards it to the recipient's
mail server. From there, the recipient's mail server stores the email until the
recipient checks their inbox.
SMTP works behind the scenes to ensure that your emails are delivered quickly
and reliably. It's a fundamental protocol for electronic communication and is used
by email providers, businesses, and individuals worldwide to send and receive
messages. Without SMTP, sending emails across the internet would be much
more complicated and unreliable.

3. TELNET
TELNET, short for Telecommunication Network, is like a virtual window that
allows users to access and control remote computers or devices over a network.
It's a protocol that enables users to establish interactive text-based
communication sessions with computers or devices located elsewhere, as if they
were directly connected to them.
Think of TELNET as a remote control for computers. With TELNET, users can log
into a remote computer or device from their own computer and perform tasks as
if they
were physically present. This can include running programs, executing commands,
retrieving files, or even configuring settings.
Using TELNET is straightforward. Users initiate a TELNET session by specifying the
hostname or IP address of the remote device they want to connect to. Once
connected, they can interact with the remote system by typing commands or
inputting text, which is then transmitted to the remote device. The remote device
processes the commands and sends back responses, which are displayed on the
user's terminal screen.
TELNET is commonly used for tasks such as remote administration,
troubleshooting, and accessing resources on servers or network devices. It
provides a convenient and efficient way for users to manage and control remote
systems without needing physical access to them. However, TELNET sessions are
unencrypted, meaning that data transmitted over TELNET connections is
susceptible to interception, making it less secure compared to modern
alternatives like SSH (Secure Shell).

4. DNS
DNS, or Domain Name System, acts like a huge directory for the internet. When
you type a website's name (like "google.com") into your browser, DNS is what
translates that name into the actual address that computers understand, called an
IP address (like "192.0.2.1").
Think of DNS as a giant phonebook. When you want to call someone, you don't
dial their phone number directly; instead, you look up their name in the
phonebook to find their number. Similarly, when you want to visit a website, your
computer looks up the website's name in the DNS directory to find its IP address,
so it knows where to go on the internet.
DNS works in a hierarchy, with different levels of servers handling different parts
of the process. At the top are the root servers, then there are servers for specific
domains (like ".com" or ".org"), and finally, there are servers for individual
websites. When you type a website's name, your computer checks with these
servers to find the right IP address, allowing you to connect to the website and
access its content.
In simple words, when you type a website's name into your browser, like
"facebook.com" or "youtube.com," your computer doesn't know where these
sites are located. It needs to translate these names into specific numerical
addresses, called IP addresses, which computers understand. That's where DNS
comes in. It's like the internet's navigation system, converting these human-
friendly names into the numeric addresses computers use to locate websites.