Cagayan State University–Carig Campus

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

TOPIC 2
DOMAIN & RANGE OF FUNCTIONS
From the previous module, we have reviewed some of the basic concepts of functions. These include
introducing relations, evaluating functions and finding for the equation of a function. We have also presented the
vertical line test in which graphs were given to identify the representations of functions.

Calculus is the mathematics that describes changes in functions. In this module, we will investigate methods
for determining the domain and range of functions. We will define polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential,
and logarithmic functions for the succeeding modules as well. We review how to evaluate these functions, and we
show the properties of their graphs. We provide examples of equations with terms involving these functions and
illustrate the algebraic techniques necessary to solve them. Hence, we are going to deal with functions on a more
extensive approach. It is essential to be familiar and comfortable with these ideas before proceeding to the formal
introduction of calculus in the next chapters.

At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

1. determine the domain and range of a function;

2. examine and analyze the basic types of functions.

1.1 Module 1: A Brief Review

A function is a special type of relation in which each element of the first set is related to exactly one element of the
second set. The element of the first set is termed the input; the element of the second set is called the output.
Functions are used all the time in mathematics to describe relationships between two sets or the dependence of one
set to another. For any function, a unique output is determined for every input, so we say that the output is a function
of the input.

To add more to our previous examples, areas of plane figures are dependent to the measurement of their sides. The
area of a circle is determined by radius, so we say that the area (output) is a function of its radius (input). The cost
of mailing a package is a function of the weight of the package. The heavier a package is, the costlier it is.

We often use x to denote the input and y to denote the output associated with x. When doing so, we refer to x as the
independent variable and y as the dependent variable, because it depends on x. Using function notation, we write
y = f (x), and we read this equation as “y equals f of x.” However, functions are not limited to x-y variables. One may
assign variables of ease to present the equation.

The concept of function can be visualized as follows:

Figure 1. A function can be visualized as an Figure 2. A function maps every element in the domain to
input/output device. exactly one element in the range. Although each input can
be sent to only one output, two different inputs can be
sent to the same output.

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Cagayan State University–Carig Campus
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LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

1.2 Domain and Range of a Function

From the previous module, we have defined that a relation is a set of ordered pairs. The set consisting of the first
components of each ordered pair is called the domain 𝒙 and the set consisting of the second components of each
ordered pair is called the range 𝒚.

Let us consider function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 and assume values of 𝑥 = 1, 2, 3. Evaluate the value of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) using
these values of 𝑥.

at 𝑥 = 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 2: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 3: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 0

Plotting the 𝑥 − 𝑦 values of the function,

Figure 3. Here we see a graph of the function f with domain

{1, 2, 3} and rule f (x) = 3 - x. The graph consists of the points
(x, f (x)) for all x in the domain.

But how does a function’s domain and range work? What do these terms imply in a function?

Every function possesses its domain. However, not all functions take same intervals of possible solution. Domain is
simply not just “values of 𝑥” as previously defined. Rather, it represents all “possible values of 𝑥 for the function to
yield a real number”. Real numbers are defined to be positive and negative rational or irrational numbers, including
zero. You must have mastered your number system in high school, haven’t you?

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 has the “set of all real numbers” as its domain, as the function would yield to a real number for all values
of 𝑥 you wish to substitute.

𝑥=5 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 5 = −2 ✓ −2 is a real number, then 5 is part of the domain

𝑥=0 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 0 = 3 ✓ 3 is a real number, then 0 is part of the domain
𝑥 = −1 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − (−1) = 4 ✓ 4 is a real number, then −1 is part of the domain

This is not the case for all functions! Take 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 for example. The set of all real numbers cannot be its domain as
you cannot extract the square root of a negative number. This would give you an imaginary number which is logically
not real.

𝑥=4 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 = √4 = 2 ✓ 2 is a real number, then 4 is part of the domain

𝑥=0 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 = √0 = 0 ✓ 0 is a real number, then 0 is part of the domain
𝑥 = −1 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 = √−1 = 𝑖 ✓ 𝑖 is a not a real number (imaginary), then −1 is
not a part of the domain. Consequently, all
negative numbers will be imaginary under this
function.

Hence, it could be deduced that the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 would be limited to just “positive real numbers including
zero”. Zero does not take any sign convention. However, you can still extract the even root of 0.

With all these examples, let us formally define a domain.

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LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

If a real-valued function of a real variable is defined by a formula, and if no domain is stated explicitly, then it is
to be understood that the domain consists of all real numbers for which the formula yields to a real value.
This is called the natural domain of the function.

It would be helpful to keep in mind that, in determining domains and ranges, we need to consider what is
mathematically permitted. Thus, the following points must be met:
✓ We cannot include any input value that leads us to take an even root (square, fourth, sixth…) of a negative
number if the domain and range consist of real numbers.
✓ In a function expressed as a formula, we cannot include any input value in the domain that would lead us to
divide by 0. Any number divided by zero is not defined and is not a real number!

With those two being noted, you can easily determine the domain of a function. Range would just be easy as domain
is correctly determined. Thus, we will focus on domain for now. But how do we write domain and range
mathematically?

1.3 Set-Builder and Interval Notations

The domains are sets with an infinite number of elements. Clearly, we cannot list all these elements. When describing
a set with an infinite number of elements, it is often helpful to use set-builder or interval notation.

You will encounter both set-builder and interval notations in a wider approach in your course entitled Mathematics
for Engineers. But since the module demands for it, let us introduce these topics in Calculus as well.

1.3.1 Set-Builder Notation

When using set-builder notation to describe a “subset of all real numbers”, denoted ℝ, we write

{x | x has some property}

We read this as “the set of real numbers x such that x has some property”. For example, if we were interested in the
set of real numbers that are greater than one but less than five, we could denote this set using set-builder notation
by writing,

{x | 1 < x < 5}

This is read as “the set of all values of x such that x is greater than 1 but less than 5”.

The numbers 1 and 5 are called the endpoints of this set. However, 1 and 5 are not included in this set as being
clearly defined. If we want to consider the set that includes the endpoints 1 and 5, we would denote this set by
writing,

{x | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5}

Here, both 1 and 5 are already included in the set. To make it clearer, look at the distinction of the sets below:

{x | 1 < x < 5} The numbers are between 1 and 5 but 1 and 5 are excluded.
{x | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} The numbers are from 1 to 5 which means 1 and 5 are already included.

Let us take more examples:

✓ The set of all values of x such that x is greater than or equal to 0. {x | x ≥ 0}

✓ The set of all values of x such that x is greater than 0. {x | x > 0}
✓ The set of all values of x such that x is greater than -7 but less {x | -7 < x ≤ 12}
than or equal to 12.

In most mathematics books, sets are preferred to be presented in interval notations. This is because interval
notations are easier to write and understand than set-builder notations.

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LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

1.3.2 Interval Notation

The sets of all values of 𝑥 can be presented in intervals as well. We can write the domain and range in interval
notation, which uses values within brackets to describe a set of numbers.

In interval notation, we use a square bracket [ when the set includes the endpoint and a parenthesis ( to indicate
that the endpoint is either not included or the interval is unbounded. In a general view, these are the conventions of
interval notation:

• The smallest number from the interval is written first.

• The largest number in the interval is written second, following a comma.
• Parentheses, ( or ), are used to signify that an endpoint value is not included, called exclusive.
• Brackets, [ or ], are used to indicate that an endpoint value is included, called inclusive.

Let us try our examples from set-builder notation and convert it to intervals:

✓ The set of all values of x such that x is greater than 1 but less than 5. {x | 1 < x < 5} (1, 5)
✓ The set of all values of x such that x is greater than or equal to 1 but {x | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} [1, 5]
less than or equal to 5.
✓ The set of all values of x such that x is greater than -7 but less than or {x | -7 < x ≤ 12} (-7, 12]
equal to 12.

Another symbol that we need to understand in using intervals is ∞ (infinity), which accounts for sets with elements
of infinite extent, either the smallest or largest number. What does this mean? ∞ (infinity) is to represent numbers
that are numerically large (+∞) or small (-∞) but are part of the set. ±∞ is not a real number but these are used
symbolically to indicate that a set includes all real numbers greater than or less than to zero, no matter how large or
small.

For example, the “set of all values of x such that x is greater than or equal to 0” is written as {x | x ≥ 0} in set-builder
notation. For you to convert this to interval, you need to define the endpoints of the set. Since x is greater than or
equal to 0, then 0 is included. The other endpoint, however, is not defined. All you know is that it should be greater
than 0. At this point, we need to use +∞ to indicate all positive numbers (numbers that are greater than 0 as defined
by the set). Thus, in intervals, {x | x ≥ 0} is written as [0, +∞).

The “set of all real numbers” would then be from negative infinity to positive infinity, written as (-∞, +∞). Suppose
that the domain of a function is discontinuous at an interval, we will use the set operation U or “union” to connect
the sets. We will discuss this as we go through the examples.

Note: We use parentheses ( or ) for ±∞. Never use [ or ] for infinity! We will use interval notation in expressing the
domain of functions throughout this module for simplicity.

Example 1: Finding the Domain

Evaluate the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4.

Solution:

𝑥 2 + 4 will yield to a real number for all values of 𝑥. Thus, the domain of the function is (−∞, +∞). For a faster
determination, the domain of all polynomials is the “set of all real numbers” or (−∞, +∞).

Example 2:

Evaluate the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2

Solution:

This is not as easy as the first one so we first assess the function. The function is an even root function (square root),
and you cannot extract the square root of a negative number. Thus, we will solve all values of 𝑥 such that 4 − 𝑥 2 is not
negative for the function to be valid.

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Cagayan State University–Carig Campus
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

As a lecturer, my first solution in finding the domain of the function is to locate its zeroes or roots. See solution on
the left portion.

𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 = 0
√4 − 𝑥 2 = 0
2
(√4 − 𝑥 2 = 0)
4 − 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥2 = 4
𝑥 = √4
𝑥 = ±2

Since -2 and 2 are the zeroes of the function, then it should be deduced that the function becomes zero at these values.
Will it be okay if the function becomes 0? Yes! Zero is still a real number, therefore both -2 and 2 are included in the
domain.

The next part of the solution is to plot the zeroes on the number line.

Here, we can see that both -2 and 2 are closed. This means that they are included in the set. After plotting, we can
see three intervals over the number line. These are the sets of (-∞, -2], [-2, 2] and [2, +∞).

The next step to the solution is to take any value from the three intervals. Remember, any value may do as long as
it belongs to the interval under consideration. See the assumptions I made below. You may assign your own.

For (-∞, -2], let us try -5.

For [-2, 2], let us try 1.
For [2, +∞), let us try 7.

Substitute these values from the function and see where the function yields to a real number. Those intervals over
which the function becomes real are part of the domain!

For (-∞, -2]: 𝑥 = −5 For [-2, 2]: 𝑥 = 1 For [2, +∞): 𝑥 = 7

𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2

𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − (−5)2 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − (1)2 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − (7)2
𝑓(𝑥) = √−21 (imaginary) 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 (real) 𝑓(𝑥) = √−45 (imaginary)

It is safe to presume that only [-2, 2] makes the function real at any value.

Therefore, the domain of the function is [-2, 2].

Example 3:
1
Evaluate the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.

Solution:

We have said that in determining domains and ranges, we need to consider what is mathematically permitted. One
that is not allowed is including any input value in the domain that would lead us to divide by 0. Any number divided
by zero is not defined and is not a real number!
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = would be undefined when 𝑥 = 0 as it will become 𝑓(𝑥) = . Any value of 𝑥 (negative or positive) will already
𝑥 0
be permitted to the function as it will yield to a real number! Therefore, only 𝑥 = 0 is not included in its domain.

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LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

In intervals, (-∞, 0) includes all negative numbers but excluding zero. (0, +∞) includes all positive numbers still
excluding zero. Since both intervals are part of the function’s domain, we need to combine by using the set operation
1
for union. We write, (-∞, 0) U (0, +∞) as the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥.

Example 4:
1
Evaluate the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √ .
𝑥 3 +8

Solution:

There is a possibility that the function will have a zero denominator. This should not be permitted as it will be
undefined! Thus, we need to find this/these value/s to exclude from the domain. Set the denominator to 0 in order
to get its factor/s.

√𝑥 3 + 8 = 0
(√𝑥 3 + 8 = 0)2
𝑥3 + 8 = 0
𝑥 3 = −8
3
𝑥 = √−8
𝑥 = −2

1
Here we can see that at 𝑥 = −2, the function becomes 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. Therefore, -2 is excluded from the domain. Would that
be all? Nope. Note that the denominator also takes the square root of a function. We need to exclude the interval
where 𝑥 3 + 8 is negative.

-2 is open as it is excluded from the domain. The intervals are (-∞, -2) and (-2, +∞).

Again, the next step to the solution is to take any value from the intervals. You may assign your own.

For (-∞, -2), let us try -3.

For (-2, +∞), let us try 5.

Substitute these values from the function and see where the function yields to a real number. Those intervals over
which the function becomes real are part of the domain!

For (-∞, -2): 𝑥 = −3 For (-2, +∞): 𝑥 = 5

1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥 3 +8 √𝑥 3 +8
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
√(−3)3 +8 √(5)3 +8
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = = (imaginary) 𝑓(𝑥) = (real)
√−19 19𝑖 √133

It is safe to presume that only (-2, +∞) makes the function real at any value.

Therefore, the domain of the function is (-2, +∞).

1.4 Range of Functions

Range becomes easy once the domain of a function is determined successfully. Just like the domain, range is
expressed in terms of either set-builder or interval notation. But what makes it distinct from a domain? Unlike
domains, ranges depend on the set of values of the dependent variable 𝑦 given its domain.

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Cagayan State University–Carig Campus
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then the set of outputs (𝑦 values) that result when 𝑥 varies over
the domain is called the range.

Example 5: Evaluating the Range

Evaluate the range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4.

Solution:

From Example 1, the domain of a polynomial is the “set of all real numbers” or (−∞, +∞). Evaluate the function.
What would be the values of 𝑓(𝑥) when you substitute values of 𝑥 from the domain?

You would realize that with (−∞, +∞), the function never becomes negative. Neither will it also become zero as the
least value of the function would be 4 when 𝑥 = 0.

at 𝑥 = 2: at 𝑥 = 0: at 𝑥 = −3: at 𝑥 = −10:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4
𝑓(𝑥) = (2)2 + 4 𝑓(𝑥) = (0)2 + 4 𝑓(𝑥) = (−3)2 + 4 𝑓(𝑥) = (−10)2 + 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 8 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑓(𝑥) = 13 𝑓(𝑥) = 104

The range of the function, therefore, is [4, +∞).

Example 6:

Evaluate the range of 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2

Solution:

The domain of the function is [-2, 2] from Example 2. Here, 𝑓(𝑥) becomes 0 at either -2 and 2. The highest value 𝑓(𝑥)
could be is at 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 when 𝑥 = 0. Therefore, the range of √4 − 𝑥 2 is [0, 2].

Lecturer’s Note: You will understand more of the function’s range when we discuss asymptotes on the latter part
of Unit 1. While you may still struggle in absorbing every detail in this module, it would be beneficial to note these
significant processes in solving domains:

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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LECTURE MODULE 2
CALCULUS 1: CHAPTER 1

Can there be functions in which the domain and range do not intersect at all?
1
Yes. For example, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = − has the set of all positive real numbers as its domain but the set of all negative
√𝑥
real numbers as its range.

As a more extreme example, a function’s inputs and outputs can be completely different categories (for example, names
of weekdays as inputs and numbers as outputs, as on an attendance chart), in such cases the domain and range have no
elements in common.

Evaluate the domain and range of the following functions.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = √5 + 2𝑥
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 4
1
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = √5−3𝑥
1
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2−16
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 14

Note: Ask the lecturer for answers after you try.

1. What is the most important thing you learned? Why do you think so?
2. What surprised you on the things you learned on this topic?
3. What could be the hardest process regarding this topic?

Anton, H., Bivens, I., & Davis, S. (2010). Calculus Early Transcendentals. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd.
Canva. (n.d.). Retrieved from Canva: www.canva.com
Openstax College. (2015). Algebra and Trigonometry. Houston.

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