PHY 423 (SOLID STATE PHYSICS II)

DIELECTRICS PROPERTIES

A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity. On the

basis of band structure, the dielectric materials have an energy gap of 3 eV or
more. This large magnitude of energy gap precludes the possibility of electrons
being excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal means. In
electromagnetism, a dielectric (or dielectric material or dielectric medium) is an
electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a
dielectric material is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow
through the material as they do in an electrical conductor, but instead only slightly
shift from their average equilibrium positions, causing dielectric polarization
(Figure 1).

Figure 1: A Polarized Dielectric Material

Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced in the direction of

the field and negative charges shift in the direction opposite to the field (e.g. if the
field is moving parallel to the positive x-axis, the negative charges will shift in the
negative x-direction). This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall
field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded
molecules, those molecules not only become polarized but also reorient so that
their symmetry axes align to the field.

The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and
magnetic energy in materials. Dielectrics are important for explaining various
phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, and cell biophysics.

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Although the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically
means materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number
called the relative permittivity. The term insulator is generally used to indicate
electrical obstruction, while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy-
storing capacity of the material (by means of polarization). A common example of
a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a
capacitor. The polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases
the capacitor’s surface charge for the given electric field strength.

Polarization in Dielectrics

The application of an electric field to a dielectric material creates the dipoles

resulting in polarization. There are four different types of polarization namely

(i) Electronic (or) Induced polarization

(ii) Ionic (or) atomic polarization

(iii) Orientation polarization

(iv) Space-charge (or) Interfacial polarization

i. Electronic (or) Induced polarization

Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively charged

nucleus and negatively charged electrons in opposite directions, when an external
electric field is applied.

Induced dipole moment is given as:

μ=α e E (1)

where α eis known as electronic polarizability. Monoatomic gases exhibit this kind
of polarization. It is proportional to the volume of the atoms and independent of
temperature.

Calculation of electronic polarizability (α e)

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a) Without field

Let us consider a classical model of an atom. Assume the charge of nucleus of that
atom is (+Ze).The nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud of charge (-Ze), which
is distributed throughout the sphere (atom) of radius R.

The charge density ‘ρ’ of the electrons;

Total negative charge
ρ= (2)
Volume of the atom

−Ze
ρ=
4
π R3
(3)
3

−3 Ze
ρ= 3 (4)
4π R

b) With field

If the dielectric material is placed in an electric field of strength E, two phenomena

occurs,

Lorentz force: which is tends to separate the nucleus and the electron cloud from
their equilibrium position. The positive nucleus will move towards the field
direction and the electron cloud will move in the opposite direction of field.

Coulomb force: It arises between the nucleus and the electron cloud which will
tend to maintain the original equilibrium position.

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Let ‘x’ be the displacement made by the electron from the positive core as shown
in figure 2;

Figure 2.

Here the displacement of electron cloud is proportional to applied electric field (E)

Induced dipole moment (μe) = Magnitude of charge X

μe =Zex (4a)

At equilibrium,

Lorentz force = Coulomb force

Lorentz force (FL) = Charge x Electric field

= - ZeE (5)
QZe
Coulomb force (FC) = 4 π ϵ x 2 (6)
o

Total number of negative charges (Q) enclosed in the sphere of radius x = charge
density of the electrons x Volume of the sphere;
−3 Ze 4 3
Q= X πx
4πR
3
3
3
−Ze x
Q= 3 (7)
R

Substituting (7) in (6);

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Ze −Ze x
F C= 2
x 3
4 π ϵo x R

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 2 2
−Z e x
F C= 3 (8)
4 π ϵo R

At equilibrium position equation (5) = equation (8)

2 2
−Z e x
−ZeE= 3
4 π ϵo R

Zex
E= 2
4 π ϵo R
3
4 π ϵo R E
x= (9)
Ze

Substituting equation (9) in equation (4a);

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Ze 4 π ϵ o R E
μe =
Ze
3
μe =4 π ϵ o R E (10)

Comparing equation (10) and (1);

3
4 π ϵ o R E=α e E
3
α e =4 π ϵ o R (11)

where α e =¿ electronic polarization

Equation (11) shows that;

 Electronic polarization is independent of temperature.

 It is proportional to the volume of atoms in the material
 Electronic polarization takes place in all dielectrics

ii. Ionic polarization

Ionic polarization occurs due to the displacement of positive and negative ions in
opposite directions, when an external electric field is applied. This type of
polarization is produced in ionic molecules such as NaCl, KBr, and KCl etc.

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Let us now consider a NaCl crystal. Each Na +and Cl- is a natural dipole, in the
presence of electric field, the ions are separated in an opposite directions as shown
in figure 3.

Figure 3

The Na+ ion moved a bit right for a distance say ‘x 1’, and Cl- moved a bit left for a
distance say ‘x2’.

Induced dipole moment = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

μi=e(x 1 + x 2) (1)

For positive ion

Restoring force F ∝ x1
F=β 1 x 1 (2)

For negative ion

Restoring force F ∝ x2
F=β 2 x 2 (3)

Here β1and β2 are restoring force constants, which depend on the masses of the ions
and the angular frequency of the molecule. If m is the mass of positive ion and M
is the mass of negative ion and ω ois the angular frequency;
2
β 1=m ωo (4)
2
β 2=M ωo (5)

where ω o is the angular frequency

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Substituting for β1in equation (2), the restoring force for positive ion can be written
as;
2
F=m ωo x 1 (6)

Recall that F=eE (7)

Equating eqn.(6) and (7) we get

2
eE=m ω o x 1

eE
Therefore, x 1= mω 2 (8)
o

Similarly for negative ion,

eE
x 2= 2 (9)
M ωo

Adding eqn.(8) and (9) we get

eE 1 1
x 1+ x2 = ( + ) (10)
ωo m M
2

Substitute equation (10) in eqn. (1) we get

2
e E 1 1
μi = 2 ( + ) (11)
ωo m M

From definition,
μi=α i E (12)

Compare equation (11) and (12) we get

2
e E 1 1
α i E= 2
( + )
ωo m M
2
e 1 1
α i= 2
( + ) (13)
ωo m M

Equation (13) shows that;

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  So the ionic polarizability is inversely proportional to the square of the
natural frequency of the ionic molecule
 It is directly proportional to reduced mass
 It is independent of temperature

iii Orientation Polarization

Orientation polarization occurs only in polar molecules (the molecules which have
permanent dipole moment eg H2O, Phenol, etc.) Polar dielectrics have molecules
with permanent dipole moments even in the absence of electric field.

When field is applied, positive align with the direction of field and the negative
side align with the direction as shown figure.

From the Langevin’s theory of Para magnetism, net intensity of magnetization is

given by
2
Nμ B
M=
3 KB T

Since same principle can be applied to the application of electric field in

dielectrics.

Orientation polarization,
2
Nμ E
PO = (1)
3 K BT

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 PO =N α O E (2)
2
Nμ E
N α O E=
3KBT
2
μ
α O= (3)
3 KB T

Equ (3) shows that the orientation polarizability is inversely proportional to

absolute temperature of the material.

iv. Space charge polarization

The space charge polarization occurs due to diffusion of ions, along the field
direction and giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics.

Consider a dielectric medium placed between any two electrodes. When no field is
applied to the electrode the positive and negative charges are not separated as
shown in figure.

When an electric field is applied, the positive charges are accumulated near the
negative electrode as shown in figure.

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Therefore a dipole moment is induced due to the displacement of the ions. Then
the induced dipole moment per unit volume gives the induced polarization. This
polarization is known as Space charge polarization.

Total Electric polarization

The Total Electric polarization is the sum of electronic polarization, ionic

polarization, orientation polarization, and space charge polarization. Among these,
the space charge polarization is very small compared to others. So it can be
neglected.

Therefore the total polarizability is given by

α =α e + α i + α o (1)

( )
2 2
3 e 1 1 μ
α =4 π ϵ o R + 2
+ + (2)
ωo m M 3 K B T

We know that the total polarization,

P=NEα (3)

Hence, P=NE ¿] (4)

Equation (4) is called Langevin- Debye equation.

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

a charge Q of density 𝜎 = Q/A is set up on the condenser with area A and distance
If a constant voltage V0 is applied to a plane condenser with a vacuum capacity C 0,

that the electric field intensity between two plates with a vacuum is E = 𝜎/𝜀0.
of separation d between the plates. From the application of Gauss’s law, we know

The potential difference V0 is the work done in carrying a unit charge from one
plate to the other. Hence,

V o =Ed=
( )
σ
∈o
d=(
Qd
∈o A
) (1)

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 Q ∈o A
= (2)
Vo d

The capacitance C0 can be written as

Q ∈o A
C o= ¿ (3)
Vo d

The capacitance C of the capacitor with dielectric medium can be written as

A
C=∈ (4)
d

where 𝜀 is the permittivity (absolute permittivity) of dielectric medium between

the capacitor plates. The permittivity (𝜀) is often represented by the relative
permittivity (𝜀r), which is the ratio of the absolute permittivity (𝜀) and the vacuum
permittivity (𝜀0)
∈
k =∈r= (5)
∈o

From equation (4) and (5) we have;

C=∈r ∈o ( Ad )=k ∈ ( Ad )
o (6)

Sample Problem 1.1

A parallel-plate capacitor of area A = 4 × 10 −2 m2 and plate separation d = 2 × 10 −2

m is raised to a potential difference V 0 = 100 V by connecting a battery when there
is no dielectric in between the plates.

(a) Calculate the capacitance C 0 of the capacitor. (b) What is the free charge
appeared on the plates?

Solution

Using equation (3)

∈o A
C o=
d

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 (a) C o=
( 8.85 x 10−12
F
m )
( 4 x 10−2 m2 )
=17.8 x 10
−12
F=17.8 pF
−2
2 x 10 m

(b) Q=C o V o

−12 −10
Q=17.8 x 10 F x 100 V =17.8 x 10 C

Sample Problem 1.2

Calculate the dielectric constant of a barium titanate crystal, which when inserted
in a parallel plate capacitor of area A = 10 mm × 10 mm and distance of separation
of d = 2 mm, gives a capacitance of 10−9 F.

Solution

From equation (6)

Cd
k=
∈o A
−9 −3
10 x 2 10
k= −12 2 −6
=2259
8.85 x 10 x 10 x 10

Electric Displacement Field, Dielectric Constant, and Electric Susceptibility

In a dielectric material, the presence of an electric field E causes the bound charges
in the material (atomic nuclei and their electrons) to slightly separate, inducing a
local electric dipole moment. The electric displacement field “D” is defined as:
D=∈o E+ P (1)

where 𝜀0 is the vacuum permittivity (also called permittivity of free space), and P
is the (macroscopic) density of the permanent and induced electric dipole moments
in the material, called the polarization density.

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In a linear, homogeneous, isotropic dielectric with instantaneous response to
changes in the electric field, P depends linearly on the electric field,
P=∈o χE (2)

where the constant of proportionality 𝜒 is called the electric susceptibility of the

material.

By rearranging equation (1) and (2) we have;

D=∈o ( 1+ χ ) E=∈ E

∈
∈=∈o ∈r ∈r= dielectric constant
∈o

∈r= (1+ χ ) is the relative permittivity of the material.

In a linear, homogeneous, and isotropic media, 𝜀 is a constant.

Dielectric loss:

Dielectric loss is the dissipation of energy through the movement of charges in an

alternating electromagnetic field as polarisation switches direction.

An efficient dielectric supports a varying charge with minimal dissipation of

energy in the form of heat is called dielectric loss. There are two main forms of
loss that may dissipate energy within a dielectric. In conduction loss, a flow of
charge through the material causes energy dissipation.

Dielectric loss is especially high around the relaxation or resonance frequencies of

the polarisation mechanisms as the polarisation lags behind the applied field,
causing an interaction between the field and the dielectric’s polarisation that results
in heating.

Dielectric Breakdown

The dielectric breakdown is the sudden change in state of a dielectric material

subjected to a very high electric field , under the influence of which , the electrons
are lifted into the conduction band causing a surge of current , and the ability of the
material to resist the current flow suffers a breakdown .

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Or

When a dielectric material loses its resistivity and permits very large current to
flow through it, then the phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown

Or

At high electric fields, a material that is normally an electrical insulator may begin
to conduct electricity – i.e. it ceases to act as a dielectric. This phenomenon is
known as dielectric breakdown.

Generally Dielectric possesses the following properties:

i. Dielectrics are insulating materials. In dielectrics, all electrons are bound

to their parent molecules and there are no free charges. Even with normal
voltage or thermal energy electrons are not released.
ii. Dielectrics are non-metallic materials of high specific resistance and have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
iii. Dielectrics are electrical insulators. They possess high resistivity values
within the range 106 Ωm to 1016 Ωm.
iv. Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permanently
or temporarily by applying electric field. These are mainly used to store
electrical energy and as electrical insulators. All dielectrics are electrical
insulators. But all electrical insulators need not be dielectrics.

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