Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern data communications.

A protocol defines what is

communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
1. Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
are presented.
2. Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
3. Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent.
------------------------
Data Communication Standards: Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto
(meaning “by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

1. De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body. They have been adopted as
standards through widespread use. These are often established by manufacturers to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.

2. De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure
standards.

Standards Organizations

1) International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO is a multinational body having
members from various governments throughout the world.

2) International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T): It is

devoted to the research and establishment of standards for telecommunications in general and for phone
and data systems in particular.

3) American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

4) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). It is the largest professional engineering
society in the world.

5) Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing

concerns.

***

LAYERED APPROACH: A computer network is a very complex system and is very difficult to implement
as a single entity. The layered approach divides a very complex task into small pieces each of
which is independent of the others. It allows a structured approach to implementing complex tasks.
The basic idea of layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces, known as layers. Each
layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers in such a manner that the highest layer is provided
a full set of services to manage communications and run the applications. A basic principle to ensure the
independence of layers is by defining services provided by each layer to the next higher layer without
defining how the services are to be performed. This permits changes in a layer without affecting other
layers.

Key benefits of a Layered Network

i) Complex systems can be broken down into understandable subsystems.

ii) Any facility implemented in one layer can be made visible to all other layers.

Computer Networks-I Module 4 Page 1 of 11

iii) Services offered at a particular level may share the services of the lower/upper levels.
iv) Each layer may be analyzed and tested independently.
v) Layers can be simplified, extended, or deleted at any time.
vi) Increase the interoperability and compatibility of various components built by different vendors.

Peer-to-Peer Processes: In a layered approach, between machines, layer x on one machine

communicates with layer x on another machine, based on the protocols. The processes on each
machine at a particular level that communicate are called peer-to-peer processes.

Interfaces between Layers: The passing of the data and other information down through the layers of
the sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an
interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines the information and services a
layer must provide for the layer above and below it.
***

ISO-OSI Layered Architecture

International Standards Organizations – Open System Interconnection (ISO-OSI) standard is a set of

protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying
architecture. ISO Model consists of seven separate, but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network. At the sending end, at each layer, a header, or possibly
a trailer, can be added to the data unit. At receiving side as each block of data reaches the next higher
layer, the headers and trailers attached to it at the corresponding sending layer are removed, and actions
appropriate to that layer are taken.

Functions of Layers in OSI Model

1) Physical Layer: The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physical medium. It deals with the physical, mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.

a) Responsible for the movement of bits through the transmission medium.

b) Defines the physical characteristics of interfaces and mediums.
c) Representation of bits and the type of encoding.
d) Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent in each second.
e) Synchronization of bits.
f) Line configuration, ie point-to-point or multipoint.
g) Physical topology.
h) Transmission mode. data flow method: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

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2) Data Link Layer: It transforms the physical layer into a reliable link and ensures error-free
node-to-node message delivery.

a) Node-to-node frame delivery.

b) Framing, divides the stream of bits received into manageable data units called frames.
c) Physical addressing. The addressing scheme in this layer is physical addressing or MAC addressing.
d) Flow control. This layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver with a
high-speed sender.
e) Error control. Mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged, lost or duplicate frames.
f) Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols
are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

3) Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet.

a) Delivery of Packets from the source to the destination host.

b) Logical addressing. Logical addressing is used to identify end systems globally.
c) Routing. To route or switch the packets to their final destination.

4) Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the process to process delivery of the entire
message.

a) The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of messages from one process to other.

b) Service-point addressing. Service-point address (port address) ensures process-to-process

message delivery between the end systems.

c) Segmentation and reassembly of packets.

d) Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. The
connectionless routes each data segment as an independent packet. A connection-oriented makes a
connection with the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.

e) Flow control. Flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.

f) Error control. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.

5) Session Layer: The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems. This layer is responsible for dialog control
and synchronization.

a) Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half-duplex (one way at a time) or
full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

b) Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to
a stream of data.

6) Presentation Layer: The presentation layer concerns the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.

a) Translation. The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between different encoding
schemes at the sending and receiving devices. At the sender, the information is converted to a common
format and at the receiver, this common format is transformed into the receiver-dependent format.

b) Encryption. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information into another form
before transmission to ensure safety, privacy and security. Decryption is the reverse process to transform
the message back to its original form.
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c) Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. It helps to
reduce the information size without losing the actual content for efficient transmission and storage over
the network.

7) Application Layer: The application layer enables the user to access the network and its services. It
provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access, shared
database management, and other types of distributed information services.

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

a) Network virtual terminal. It is the software that allows a user to log on to a remote host. The
application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the
software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host works as if it is
communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.

b) File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a remote
host (to make changes or read data), retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer,
and manage or control files in a remote computer locally.

c) Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

ISO OSI Layer functions - Summary

# Layer Functions

1 Physical a) Physical, mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface

and transmission medium.
b) Bit Representation and encoding.
c) Data rate, Synchronization, Line Configuration, Topology, and
transmission modes.

2 Datalink a) Node-to-node frame delivery.

b) Framing.
c) Physical addressing
d) Flow Control, Error Control, and Access Controls.

3 Network a) Packetization
b) Source to Destination Packet delivery.
c) Logical (IP) Addressing.
d) Routing.

4 Transport a) Process to process message delivery.

b) Service point (port) addressing.
c) Segmentation and Reassembly
d) Flow Control, Error Control, and Connection Controls.

5 Session a) Dialogue control and synchronization.

b) Establishes, control, and maintains user sessions.

6 Presentation a) Translation
b) Encryption
c) Compression

7 Application a) User Interfaces to access network services.

b) Protocols: NVT, Mail, file transfer, etc.

*****

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model, designed and developed by the Department of
Defense (DoD) in the 1960s. It contains four layers,

1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

1) Network Access/Link Layer

It is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model, the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model. It defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network. This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of data between two devices on the same
network. The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted
by the network and mapping IP addresses into physical addresses. The protocols used by this layer are
ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

2) Internet Layer

It is also known as Network Layer. This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The important
protocols in this layer are

i) IP – Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination.

ii) ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible
for providing hosts with information about network problems.

iii) ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a
known IP address.

3. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are:

i) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): It provides reliable, connection-oriented, and error-free

communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data acknowledgment
features and flow control mechanisms. It is very effective in case of security and reliability with increased
cost.

ii) User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Unreliable transport as it is very cost-effective. UDP is a
connectionless protocol. Data packets follow different routes on their route from source to destination.
Packets delivery is not guaranteed in UDP. In addition, packets may arrive in any order, that should be
rearranged in the destination. The protocol is effective in its speed.

4. Application Layer

This layer performs the functions of the top three layers of the OSI model: Application, Presentation and
Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface
specifications. Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH,
SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD.

***

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 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research

Organization) Project Agency Network).

OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing points
interfaces, services, and protocols. between services, interfaces, and protocols.

OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI uses the network layer to define routing TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.

OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

In the OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.

In the OSI model, the data link layer and In TCP, physical and data link are both combined as
physical are separate layers. a single host-to-network layer.

Session and presentation layers are a part of There is no session and presentation layer in the
the OSI model. TCP model.

It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of the internet.

The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The minimum header size is 20 bytes.
***

Transport Layer Protocols

Transport layer is responsible for the process-to-process delivery of the entire message. It ensures the
whole message arrives intact and in order at the destination, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the source-to-destination level. It utilizes sockets (end points of communication) for application
to application message delivery. Socket is a software construct, and is a combination of IP Address and
port number. The transport layer includes two protocols for the message delivery: i)TCP and ii) UDP.

i) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP protocol is a secured and connection oriented protocol in
which a prior connection is established before the transmission and all packets follows this dedicated
path. The properties of TCP Protocol are the following
a) Connection oriented, reliable and secure: Secured connection, Ordered delivery: data reaches
intended destination in the same order it was sent.
b) Error Checking and Correction: Positive or negative acknowledgements for error control and
correction.
c) Flow Control
d) Full duplex operation

ii) UDP (User Datagram Protocol): It is a connection-less protocol.

• Non-Reliable: a simple protocol and it provides nonsequenced transport functionality.

• used when reliability and security are less important than speed and size.

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 TCP vs UDP
Basis TCP UDP

Definition Establishes a virtual circuit before transmits the data directly to the destination without
transmitting the data. verifying whether the receiver is ready to receive .

Connection Type Connection Oriented Connection Less

Speed Slow High

Reliability Reliable Un-reliable

Header size 20 bytes 8 bytes

Acknowledgement Yes No

Retransmission Yes No

***
Network Layer Protocols
i) Internet Protocol (IP): It is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of data so that
they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination.
The IP protocol supports two types of communication:

● Unicasting: It is a communication between one sender and one receiver, that it is one-to-one
communication.
● Multicasting: The process of sending the same message to a large number of receivers
simultaneously is known as multicasting which has one-to-many communication.
Computer Networks-I Module 4 Page 7 of 11
Internet Protocol utilize IP address, or Internet Protocol address, (a series of numbers) that identifies any
device on a network and to communicate with each other both over the internet as well as on other
networks.

ii) Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)

Interior gateway protocol (IGP) is a dynamic route update protocol used between routers that run on
TCP/IP hosts within a single autonomous system. The routers use this protocol to exchange information
about IP routes.
Some of the more common interior gateway protocols are:
● Routing Information Protocol (RIP): RIP uses a distance vector algorithm to calculate the best
path to a destination based on the number of hops in the path. RIP has several limitations.
● Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): It uses a link state or shortest path first algorithm. It requires
reduced time to converge after a network change compared to RIP. OSPF is more complicated to
configure than RIP and might not be suitable for small networks.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP): IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to support
multicasting. Used by the hosts and router to identify the hosts in a LAN that are the members of a
group.

Membership Query message- This message is sent by a router to all hosts on a local area network to
determine the set of all the multicast groups that have been joined by the host.

Membership Report message: The host responds to the membership query message with a
membership report message.

Leave Report: When the host does not send the "Membership Report message", it means that the host
has left the group.
iii) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol).
The ICMP is a network layer protocol used by hosts and routers to send the notifications of IP datagram
problems back to the sender.
iv) ARP(Address Resolution Protocol): Used to associate an IP address with the MAC address.
Devices need the MAC address for communication on a local area network.
Working: If a host need the physical address of another host on its network, then it sends an ARP query
packet that includes the IP address and broadcast it over the network. Every host on the network receives
and processes the ARP packet, but only the intended recipient recognizes the IP address and sends back
the physical address. The host holding the datagram adds the physical address to the cache memory and
to the datagram header, then sends back to the sender.
v) RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol): The protocol used to obtain the IP address from a
server is known as Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
Working:
If a host wants to know its IP address, then it broadcast the RARP query packet that contains its physical
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address to the entire network. RARP server on the network recognizes the RARP packet and responds
back with the host IP address.

***
Application Layer Protocols
i) FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

Standard protocol for transmitting the files from one host to another reliably and efficiently. Three types of
processes in client and two types in server.
Two types of connections:
i)Control connection: Port 21. Simple rules for connection. Connection between the control process to
exchange control signals and responses. Remains connected till the end of active session.
ii)Data Connection: Port 20. Complex rules. The data connection is made between data transfer
processes. The data connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and closes when
the file is transferred.
Advantages
1. Speed: The fastest way for file transfer.
2. Efficient: do not need to complete all the operations to get the entire file.
3. Security: Protected with user credentials.
4. Back & forth movement: Two way transfer of files.

Disadvantages
1. File size limit: 2 GB limit
Computer Networks-I Module 4 Page 9 of 11
 2. Security issues: Data is not encrypted..
3. Multiple receiving is not supported.
ii) TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol): Faster but simpler file transfer protocol compared to FTP. UDP
based service, using port no 69.

# FTP TFTP

1 File Transfer Protocol Trivial File Transfer Protocol

2 Complex compared to TFTP Simpler than FTP

3 Two Ports: 21-Control, 20-Data Single Port Port :69

4 Needs authentication for communication No Authentication

5 Based on TCP and hence reliable Based on UDP and hence un-rliable

6 Slow compared to TFTP Speed compared to FTP

iii) Telnet: Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. A program that allows a user to log on to a
remote computer via a text-based interface. Telnet creates a virtual terminal connection, allowing users to
access applications on a remote machine. Telnet uses TCP connection for troubleshooting/configuration
of remote terminals.

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): A set of communication guidelines that allow software to
transmit an electronic mail over the internet. The main components of SMTP are i) User Agent and ii) Mail
Transfer Agent. The user agent (UA) prepares the message, creates the envelope and then puts the
message in the envelope. The mail transfer agent (MTA) transfers this mail across the internet.
Working
a) Composition: User prepares the mail through Mail User Agent(MUA).
bi) Submission: MUA submits the email to SMTP server using SMTP on TCP port 25.
c) Delivery: The MTA transfers the email to the appropriate server.
d) Storage: The server stores the received mail in Mail Delivery Agent(MDA).
e) Retrieval: The stored email in MDA can be retrieved by MUA.

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SMTP - Advantages
a) Low cost and wide coverage
b) Reliable and prompt delivery.
c) Bulk mailing facility
d) Choices for tracking and autoresponse.
SMTP - Disadvantages
1. SMTP’s common port can be blocked by firewalls.
2. Security issues
3. Size Restrictions

5. HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): Protocol used to access the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video etc on the WWW.

Features
i) Connectionless protocol: The connection between client and server exist only during the current
request and response time only.
ii) Media independent: The data is carried in the form of MIME-like format. The content type is specified
in MIME-type header.
iii) Stateless: The client and server do not retain the information between various requests of the web
pages.

HTTP messages can be classified into two as

i) Request Message: Sent by the client that consists of a request line, headers, and sometimes a body.

ii) Response Message: Sent by the server to the client that consists of a status line, headers, and
sometimes a body.
****

IPv4 - See Slides

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