LOGIC AND PROOFS

Propositional Equivalences
 Two logical expressions are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value in all
cases.

Three types of propositions when classified according to their truth values

1. Tautology – a proposition which is always true.

Example : p v ~p

2. Contradiction – a proposition which is always false

Example : p ʌ ~p

3. Contingency – A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example : p v p

Note: for logical equivalences, please see Table 6, 7, and 8(pages 27-28)

Propositional Satisfiability
 A compound proposition is satisfiable if there is an assignment of truth values to its
variables that makes it true. When the compound proposition is false for all assignments
of truth values to its variables, the compound proposition is unsatisfiable.
 When we find a particular assignment of truth values that makes a compound
proposition true, we have shown that it is satisfiable; such an assignment is called a
solution of this particular satisfiability problem.
p q pvq pʌq
T T T T
T F T F
F T T F
F F F F

Example:
Determine whether the compound proposition is satisfiable :
(p ∨ ¬q) ∧ (¬p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬q)
Solution
p q pv ~q ~pvq ~pv~ (p ∨ ¬q) ∧ (¬p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ ¬q)
q
T T T T F F
T F T F T F
F T F T T F
F F T T T T
It is satisfiable

This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicate Logic
 It is an extension of Propositional logic.
 It deals with predicates, which are propositions containing variables.

Predicates
 It is an expression of one or more variables determined on some specific domain.
 A predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either authorizing a value to
the variable or by quantifying the variable.
 It refers to a property that the subject of the statement can have.

Consider the statement :

“x is greater than 3″

2 parts of the statement:

1. variable “x” – the subject of the statement
2. “is greater than 3” – the predicate

Note:
1. The above statement can be written as P(x) where P is the predicate “is greater than 3”
and x is the variable.
2. The predicate P can be considered as a function. It tells the truth value of P(x) at x.
In math : f(x) = x+1 ; f(2) = 2+1

3. Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the statement P(x) becomes a proposition.
4. In general, a statement involving n variables x1, x2, x,.. , xn can be denoted by P(x1, x2, x,.. , xn).
Here P is also referred to as n-place predicate or a n-ary predicate.

Definition:
Let P(x) be a statement involving the variable x and let D be a set. We call P a propositional
function(with respect to D) if for each x in D, P(x) is a proposition. We call D the domain of
discourse of P.

Examples of predicates:
1. Let P(x, y) denote "x = y"
2. Let P(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"
3. Let P(x, y) denote "x is married to y"

Examples of propositional functions with domain of discourse , D

a. n2 + 2n is an odd integer (D – set of positive integers)
b. x2 – x – 6 = 0 (D – set of real numbers)
c. student in ICS2603 whose FG >60 (D – set of students in ICS2603)

Exercise 1:
1. Let P(n) denote the statement “n is an odd number″ and let D be the set of positive integers.
Find the truth value of P(1) and P(2). P(1) – T ; P(2) - F
2.Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 10″. What are the truth values of P(11) and P(5)?
This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 3. Let R(x,y) denote the statement “x = y + 1“. What is the truth value of the propositions
R(1,3) and R(2,1)?
4. Let P(x, y, z) denote that x + y = z and the domain of discourse D be the integers for all three
variables. Find the truth value of the propositional function.
a. P(−4, 6, 2) - T
b. P(5, 2, 10) - F
c. P(5, W, 7) - NOT A PROPOSITION
5. Let Q(x, y, z) denote that x − y = z and D be integers.
a. P(1, 2, 3) ∧ Q(5, 4, 1) - T
b. P(1, 2, 4) → Q(5, 4, 0) - T
c. P(1, 2, 3) → Q(5, 4, 0) - F
d. P(1, 2, 4) → Q(x, 4, 0) - NOT A PROPOSITION

Quantifiers
 The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers.
 We need quantifiers to formally express the meaning of the words
“all” and “some”.

The two most important quantifiers are:

1. Universal quantifier(∀) - means “for all”, “for every”, or “for any”
∀P(x) - denotes the universal quantification of P(x)
2. Existential quantifier(∃) – means “there exists”,“for some”, or “for at least one”
∃P(x) – denotes the existential quantification of P(x)

Universally quantified statement

 The statement : for every x, P(x) (in symbol : ∀xP(x)) is said to be universally quantified
statement(UQS).
 ∀xP(x) is true if P(x) is true for every x in D otherwise, P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at
least one x in D
 ∀xP(x) asserts that P(x) is true for every x in the domain, D

Existentially quantified statement

 The statement : for some x, P(x) (in symbol : ∃xP(x)) is said to be an existentially
quantified statement(EQS)
 ∃xP(x) is true if P(x) is true for at least one x in D. P(x) is false if P(x) is false for every x
in D.
 ∃xP(x) asserts that P(x) is true for some x in the domain, D
In summary:

https://tutorialspoint.dev/computer-science/engineering-mathematics/mathematic-logic-predicates-quantifiers

Example:
This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 1. Let P(x) denote x < 0.
If D are integers then ∃x P(x) is true.
If D are positive integers then ∃x P(x) is false.

Exercise 2 :
Note: D – set of all real numbers
1. Let P(x) be the statement “x + 2 > x“. What is the truth value of the statement ∀xP(x)?
X = -5 -5+2 > -5 T
2. Let P(x) be the statement “x > 5″. What is the truth value of the statement ∃xP(x) ?
X = 2 – F, x = 7 - T
3. Let P(x) be the statement x2 – 1 > 0. What is the truth value of the statement ∀xP(x)?
x 2
4. Let P(x) be the statement = . What is the truth value of the statement ∃xP(x) ?
x +1 5
2

Uniqueness Quantifier
 ∃!x P(x) means that there exists one and only one x in the domain such that P(x) is true.
∃1x P(x) is an alternative notation for ∃!x P(x).
 This is read as “there is one and only one x such that P(x).

Examples:
1. Let P(x) denote x + 1 = 0 and D are the integers then ∃!x P(x) is true.
2. Let P(x) denote x > 0 and D are the integers. Then ∃!x P(x) is false.

Free and Bound Variables

Note:
 In P(x) – x is a free variable (the idea is “x” is free to roam over D)
 In ∀xP(x) or ∃x P(x) – “x” is a bound variable(the idea is that “x” is bound by the
quantifier ∀ or ∃)

 Variables in the scope of some quantifier are called bound variables. All other variables
in the expression are called free variables.
 The scope of the quantifier is the part of a logical expression to which the quantifier is
applied.

Examples:
1. The statement ∃x(x + y = 1):
- variable x is bound by the existential quantification ∃x,
- variable y is free because it is not bound by a quantifier and no value is assigned to
this variable.
2. The statement ∃x(P (x) ∧ Q(x)) ∨ ∀xR(x):
- all variables are bound.
- the scope of ∃x is P (x) ∧ Q(x) because ∃x is applied only to P (x) ∧ Q(x)
- the scope of ∀x, is the expression R(x)

 A propositional function that does not contain any free variables is a proposition and has
a truth value.

This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00
Precedence of Quantifiers
https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
  Quantifiers ∀ and ∃ have higher precedence then all logical operators.
 ∀x P(x) ∧ Q(x) means (∀x P(x)) ∧ Q(x). In particular, this expression contains a free
variable. ∀x (P(x) ∧ Q(x)) means something different.

Quantifiers as Conjunctions/Disjunctions
 If the domain is finite then universal/existential quantifiers can be expressed by
conjunctions/disjunctions.

Example:
If D consists of the integers 1,2, and 3, then
 ∀x P(x) ≡ P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧ P(3)
 ∃x P(x) ≡ P(1) ∨ P(2) ∨ P(3)

Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers

 Two logical statements involving predicates and quantifiers are considered equivalent
if and only if they have the same truth value no matter which predicates are
substituted into these statements irrespective of the domain used for the variables in
the propositions.

There are two very important equivalences involving quantifiers, given below:

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/mathematical-logic-predicates-quantifiers-set-2/

Negating Quantified Expressions

Consider ∀x J(x) - “Every student in class IT has taken a course in Java.”
Where : J(x) - “x has taken a course in Java”
Domain - students in class IT

Negating the original statement gives :

“It is not the case that every student in class IT has taken Java.”
This implies that “There is a student in class IT who has not taken Java.”

Symbolically:
¬∀x J(x) and ∃x¬J(x) are equivalent

Consider
∃x J(x) - “There is a student in class IT who has taken a course in Java.
Where : J(x) - “x has taken a course in Java.”

Negating the original statement gives

“It is not the case that there is a student in class IT who has taken Java.”
This
This studyimplies that “Every
source was downloaded student from
by 100000889212900 in CourseHero.com
class IT has not taken
on 04-14-2025 Java”
05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 Symbolically
¬∃x J(x) and ∀x ¬J(x) are equivalent
¬∃x J(x) ≡ ∀x ¬J(x)

De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers

 The rules for negations for quantifiers

Examples :
1. What are the negations of the statements:
A. “There is an honest politician” D – ALL POLITICIANS
H(x) – “x is honest” - ∃xH(x)
ANS:
Negation : ~∃x H(x) or ∀x~H(x)

B. “All Americans eat cheeseburgers” D – all Americans

C(x) – “x eat cheeseburger”
In symbol : ∀xC(x)
Negation: ~∀xC(x) or Ǝx~C(x)

C. ∀x(x2 > x)
Negation : -∀x(x2 >x) or

D. ∃x(x2 = 2)
Negation : ~∃x(x2=2)

Nested Quantifiers
 Two quantifiers are nested if one is within the scope of the other.

Example:

This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 Example:
1. Translate the following statement into English.
a. ∀x ∀y (x + y = y + x) Domain: real numbers
English : For all x and y, x plus y is equal to y plus x

b. ∀x ∃y (x = - y) Domain: real numbers

English : for every real number x, there is a real number y such that x = -y

2. let L(x,y) be the propositional function “x loves y”, D – set of all living people
Write each proposition symbolically.
a. Someone loves everybody - Ǝx∀yL(x, y)

b. somebody loves somebody - ƎxƎyL(x,y)

3. ∀x ∀y ((x > 0) ʌ (y < 0)  (xy < 0)) D – Real numbers or R

English : for every real number x, and for every real number y, if x>0 and y<0 then xy<0

4. ∀x∀y((x > 0) ∧ (y > 0) → (x + y > 0))

English : For every real number x and y, if x>0 and y>0 then x+y>0

Domain: real numbers

Order of Quantifiers
 The order of nested universal quantifiers in a statement without other quantifiers
can be changed without changing the meaning of the quantified statement.

This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 https://i.stack.imgur.com/XWi0V.png

Example:
1. Assume P(x,y) is (xy = yx). Translate the following statement into English.
∀x ∀y P(x,y) domain: real numbers

If this module has errors, please do not hesitate to report such errors.

This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/
 References:
1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/mathematic-logic-predicates-quantifiers/
2.https://www.tutorialspoint.com/discrete_mathematics/discrete_mathematics_predicate_logic.htm

This study source was downloaded by 100000889212900 from CourseHero.com on 04-14-2025 05:20:01 GMT -05:00

https://www.coursehero.com/file/108511753/LOGIC-AND-PROOFS-QUANTIFIERS-AND-VALIDITY-ITD-1docx/

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)