AGEX 321- AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION & RURAL SOCIOLOGY

CHAPTER TWO: CULTURE

Definition of Culture
In social science, the term culture refers to the shared ways of thinking and believing. It can
grow out of group experience and passed from one generation to the next. Hence, culture can be
defined as the ways of life of a society, the knowledge, beliefs, customs, and skills available to
its members. Different scholars defined culture according to their contexts. Edward Taylor
(1832-1917) is an English anthropologist and the founder of cultural anthropology. He defined
culture as ―the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, custom, and
any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of a society. Culture is a ways of
life includes what people have, to do, and think.
Pudding-stone defined culture as ―the sum of total material and intellectual equipment whereby
people satisfy their biological and social needs. Culture includes: Intangible (non-material) items
like values, beliefs, norms, language, and ideas (ideologies, perception of reality) that govern the
way of life. Tangible things – material objects. Human beings have created this way of life,
which includes both material and non-material objects. Culture is the patterns of behavior and
the products of the patterns of behavior. Non-humans guided by instincts. They have a biological
programming. Humans guided by culture, which may be called as social programming.
Characteristics of culture
i. Symbolic: Culture is found only in human society. This is because human develop and use
highly complex systems of symbols. Symbols allow people to develop complex thoughts and to
exchange those thoughts with others. Language and other forms of symbolic communication
such as art, enable people to create, explain, and record new ideas and information. A symbol has
either an indirect connection or no connection at all with the object, idea, feeling, or behavior to
which it refers. Symbols can be verbal (e.g. dog) or non-verbal (e.g. Flag).
ii. Universal: Culture is universal. There is no society without culture. For example the
institutions like marriage, family, religion, education, policy, economy, and sports are found all
over the world. Societies have developed values, norms, beliefs, and other patterns of behavior
that govern the system of marriage and family. Universality (food, shelter, language), generality
(flag, aid), and sub-culture (dressing style, housing condition, etc).

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iii. Variability: There is variability in the universals of culture. The arranged marriages, in
family size, type of family, and residence of new couples, in authority pattern, political and
economic systems are all variations that are found in world.
iv. Learned: Culture is learned through the process of interaction with others. It is not inherited
through the biological process. People are not born with culture. Animals can learn but no animal
species has ever develop a culture. We learn to talk, to walk, and to act as our elders train us.
Also human beings have the capacity to learn a variety of languages.
v. Shared: Culture is not the property of one individual or of a group. It is shared with other
members of society. You are sharing TV transmission with others, sharing a classroom with
others, sharing the road with others, and sharing the knowledge with others. You are sharing
culture with others because you are a social being. Therefore, culture can be learned through
observing, listening, talking, & interacting as a member of society.
vi. Transmitted: Culture does not end with the death of a person or a group. During its lifetime
that individual or group tries to pass on its culture to the future generation. That is how culture
grows and that is how our culture becomes richer and richer. Culture is not transmitted
genetically but equipped through learning or transmitted through observation.
vii. Changing: Culture is continuously changing. The patterns of behavior transmitted by one
generation to another are continuous in the process of modification for catering to the changing
needs of time and demands of people. New technologies are developed and are borrowed from
other groups and societies. It is not transmitted genetically and it is not static rather it is dynamic.
The rate of change may be varying. In small scale societies the rate of change is slow whereas in
industrial societies it is fast. There are various factors for the rate of change to be fast or slow.
Some of these factors are- mass media, education, attitude of the people, etc. Hence in small
scale societies there is a cultural lag. However, the material aspect of culture changes more
quickly than the non-material culture as a result the non-material culture is usually adjusting to
keep pace with the material culture. Material culture is sum of artifacts and others whereas non
material culture includes values, attitudes, and behavioral patterns.
Culture could be changed in to two means-internal and external. Internal change can be invention
and innovation. Invention is new thing (idea) or behavioral pattern that emerges within that
society. It could be brought deliberately, consciously or non-consciously. External change could

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be cultural diffusion. Diffusion is the process of spreading of a thing, an idea, or behavioral
pattern from one culture to another.
viii. Culture is adaptable and maladaptive: Human adapts their environment for survival or
reproduction i.e. cultural and biological adaptation of animals and humans in common in
physiological features. For instances lions have long jaws and canines for their survival; but for
human being‘s survival culture is needed. Humans developed spears and tools by innovations for
food collection. To protect sunlight humans wear white clothes, which is the result of cultural
invention. Adaptive behavior that offer short term benefits for particular individuals may also
harm the environment and threaten the group‘s long term survival.
ix. Integrated: All cultures share a certain number of universal characters. It is interconnected
one to another. In human beings there are different types of systems such as respiratory system,
digestive systems, and the like. When we come to culture, there is marriage system, kinship
system, economic system, social system. Then each part contributes to the whole system. For
instance the economic importance of cattle is for food, hide and fuel, medicine, and fertilizer.
The cultural importance of marriage system is for bride price. An aesthetic value also can be
mentioned such as folk, song, etc.
x. Culture has patterns: Pattern refers to a specific ways of behaving which is part of a given
culture. Culture has two patterns namely ideal and behavioral.
Ideal pattern: what a people of a society would do or say in a particular situation.
Behavioral pattern: derived from observation of how people actually behave in a particular
situation.
High culture - Cultural patterns that distinguish a society‘s elite.
Popular culture - Cultural patterns those are widespread among a society‘s population.
Culture of poverty - Cultural patterns shared by the poor.
Sub-Culture: It is the cultural patterns that set apart some segments of a society‘s population.
Cluster of patterns which both are related to the general culture of the society yet distinguishable
from it. Example, student sub-culture, business sub-culture
Multiculturalism: A policy followed by some governments whereby they recognize cultural
diversity in the society and promote the equality of all cultural traditions.
Counter-Culture: It is a sub-culture, which is in active opposition to the dominant culture.
Cultural patterns that strongly oppose widely accepted patterns within a society. Example, drug

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users
xi. Culture is global: Today, more than ever before, we can observe many of the same cultural
practices being followed the world over. We find people sharing of clothes, music, and same
products language in different countries. Societies now have more contact with one another than
ever before, involving the flow of goods (economy), information (communication), and people
(migration).
Elements of culture
Symbols: Symbols are the central components of culture. Symbols refer to anything to which
people attach meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically,
symbols are words, objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else rather than
themselves. Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture. It is the human
ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning.
There is no obvious natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes.
Language: Language, specifically defined as a system of verbal and in many cases written
symbols with rules about how those symbols can be strung together to convey more complex
meanings, is the distinctive capacity and possession of humans; it is a key element of culture.
Culture encompasses language, and through language, culture is communicated and transmitted.
Without language it would be impossible to develop, elaborate and transmit culture to the future
generation.
Values: Values are essential elements of non-material culture. They may be defined as general,
abstract guidelines for our lives, decisions, goals, choices, and actions. They are shared ideas of a
groups or a society as to what is right or wrong, correct or incorrect, desirable or undesirable,
acceptable or unacceptable, ethical or unethical, etc., regarding something. They are general road
maps for our lives. Values are shared and are learned in group. They can be positive or negative.
For example, honesty, truth – telling, respect for others, hospitality, helping those in need, etc are
positive values. Examples of negative values include theft, indecency, disrespect, dishonesty,
falsehood, frugality, etc. The Hippocratic Oath in medical profession dictates that practitioners
should among other things, keep the secrets of patients, provide them whatever help they can, do
no harm to patients willingly, etc. This is an example of positive value.
Values are dynamic, meaning they change over time. They are also static, meaning they tend to
persist without any significant modification. Values are also diversified, meaning they vary from

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place to place and culture to culture. Some values are universal because there is biopsychological
unity among people everywhere and all times. In other words, they emanate from the basic
similarity of mankind‘s origins, nature and desires. For example, dislike for killing people,
concepts and practices of disease management, cleanliness, personal hygiene, cosmetics, incest
taboo, etc.
Norms: Norms are also essential elements of culture. They are implicit principles for social life,
relationship and interaction. Norms are detailed and specific rules for specific situations. They
tell us how to do something, what to do, what not to do, when to do it, why to do it, etc. Norms
are derived from values. That means, for every specific norm, there is a general value that
determines its content. Individuals may not act according to the defined values and norms of the
group. Therefore, violation of values and norms and deviating from the standard values and
norms are often common. Social norms may be divided into two. These are mores and folkways:
Mores: Are important and stronger social norms for existence, safety, well-being and continuity
of the society or the group or society. Violation of, and deviation from these kinds of norms, may
result in serious reactions from the groups. The strongest norms are regarded as the formal laws
of a society or a group. Formal laws are written and codified social norms. The other kinds of
mores are called conventions. Conventions are established rules governing behavior; they are
generally accepted ideals by the society. Conventions may also be regarded as written and signed
agreements between nations to govern the behaviors of individuals, groups and nations.
Folkways: Are the ways of life developed by a group of people. They are detailed and minor
instructions, traditions or rules for day-to-day life that help us function effectively and smoothly
as members of a group. Here, violating such kinds of norms may not result in a serious
punishment unlike violating mores. They are less morally binding. In other words, folkways are
appropriate ways of behaving and doing things. Examples may include table etiquette, dressing
rules, walking, talking, etc.
Conformity to folkways usually occurs automatically without any national analysis and is based
upon custom passed from generation to generation. They are not enforced by law, but by
informal social control. They are not held to be important or obligatory as mores, or moral
standards, and their violation is not as such severely sanctioned. Although folkways are less
binding, people have to behave according to accepted standards. Some exceptional behaviors are
regarded eccentric behaviors.

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Folkways are distinguished from laws and mores in that they are designed, maintained and
enforced by public sentiment, or custom, whereas laws are institutionalized, designed,
maintained and enforced by the political authority of the society. Folkways in turn may be
divided into two sub types: fashion and custom.
Fashion: Is a form of behavior, type of folkways that is socially approved at a given time but
subject to periodic change. Adherents combine both deviation and conformity to norm of a
certain group.
Custom: Is a folkway or form of social behavior that, having persisted a long period of time, has
become traditional and well established in a society and has received some degree of formal
recognition. Custom is a pattern of action shared by most or all members of a society. Habit is a
personality trait, whereas the custom is a group trait. Fashion and customs can be differentiated
in that while custom changes at slower rate, fashion changes at a faster rate.
Cultural variations / diversity
There are many ways of life; hence there are differences in culture. In one society there could be
differences in patterns of marriage and family, patterns of education, patterns of worship, and
patterns of earning a living.
Cultural diversity can involve social class. In everyday life, we usually use the term ―culture to
mean art forms such as classical literature, music, dance, and painting. We describe
people ―cultured, and speak less generously of ordinary people, assuming that everyday culture
is somehow less worthy. Such judgments imply that many cultural patterns are readily accessible
to only some members of society. People often divide society in different social classes and find
that each class represents differences in their norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, and thinking.
These norms, values, and attitudes may relate to the institutions of marriage and family, religion,
education, earning a living, or their political behavior, one could find the differences.
Attitudes toward cultural variation
Ethnocentrism: In Greek ‗Ethno’ means people and ‗centric’ is a Latin word which means
center. The whole judgment is centered on one‘s own culture. The practice of judging other‘s
culture by the standards of one‘s own culture. People consider their own culture as superior to
others and apply their standards for evaluating the patterns of behavior of others. It is a notion
that one‘s culture is more sensible than or superior to that of the other societies.
Cultural relativism: The practice of judging a culture by its own standards. A particular pattern

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of behavior is right or wrong as it is declared by the people who follow it. The same practice may
be useful for one group and may be harmful for the other in the same society whereas Xeno
centrism- is idea of considering other‘s culture as superior to one‘s own.
Aspects of Cultural Variation
Subcultures
A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and
values that differs from the pattern of the larger society. In a sense, a sub culture can be thought
of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. The existence of many subcultures is
characteristic of complex societies.
Subcultures develop in a number of ways. Often a subculture emerges because segment of
society faces problems or even privileges unique to its position. Sub- cultures may be based on
common age (teenagers or old people), region, ethnic heritage, occupation or belief. Certain
subcultures, such as computer hackers, develop because of a shared interest or hobby.
In still other sub cultures, such as that of prison inmates, members have been excluded from
conventional society and are forced to develop alternative ways of living.
Counterculture
When a subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture, it
is known as a counterculture. Countercultures typically thrive among the young, who have the
least investment in the existing culture. In most cases, a 20 year old can adjust to new cultural
standards more easily than someone who has spent 60 years following the patterns of the
dominant culture.
Culture shock
Anyone who feels disoriented, uncertain, out of place, even fearful, when immersed in an
unfamiliar culture may be experiencing culture shock. For example, a resident of Kenya who
visits certain areas in China and wants local meat for dinner may be stunned to learn that the
specialty is dog meat. Similarly, someone from a strict Islamic culture may be shocked upon first
seeing the comparatively provocative dress styles and open displays of affection that are
common in the United States and various European cultures.
All of us, to some extent, take for granted the cultural practices of our society. As a result, it can
be surprising and even disturbing to realize that other cultures do not follow our ―way of life.

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The fact is that customs that seem strange to us are considered normal and proper in other
cultures, which may see our mores and folkways as odd.
Culture Lag and Culture Lead
Culture is dynamic. When culture change occurs, the change is usually not evenly distributed
across material and non-material dimensions of culture. The rate of change is not balanced.
Material culture may change at a faster rate than non- material culture. The growth in science
and technology in western, industrialized societies for example, does not seem to be matched by
the necessary changes and appropriate adjustment of adaptive culture. That is non-material
culture changes slowly. This condition is termed as culture lag.
Associated with the rapid growth in material culture are usually crisis in the realm of amorality,
social and cultural dilemmas, which in turn result in various social pathologies such as extreme
form of individualism, alienation, the state of formlessness, suicide, etc (Team of Experts, 2000).
On the other hand, in some less developed societies, the change of non-material culture may
outpace the material culture. When this occurs, it is called culture lead. Due to the effect of
globalization and rapid assimilation processes, people in the Third World are accustomed to the
ideology and cultures of the Western World, though their material culture is not changing
keeping pace with non- material culture.
Global culture may also be associated with cultural imperialism, the unequal cultural exchange
in the global system whereby western material and non-material cultures have come to occupy a
dominating and imposing roles over the indigenous cultures of the Third World people.

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CHAPTER THREE
Rural Social Structure, Organizations and Institutions in Rural Setting
3.1 Definition and Main Features
Social institutions: - may be defined as practices based on similar principles that display some
degree of regularity. More specifically, a social institution is an interrelated system of social
roles and social norms, organized around the satisfaction of an important social need or social
function.
In general, a social institution is an established pattern of behavior that is organized to perpetuate
the welfare of society and to preserve its form. From the above definition, we can observe that
social institutions have got some important functions. Three of such main functions are:
1) Perpetuation of the welfare of society,
2) Preservation and maintenance of the form of society, and
3) Meeting the major needs of the members of society.
A society is functionally integrated and held together by social institutions. Social institutions are
universal. They vary from time to time and across cultures, in terms of complexity, specialization,
scope, formality and organization. But their basic nature and purpose are similar everywhere.
These features are particularly true regarding the five major social institutions discussed below.
Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend to persist. However, once a change occurs in
particular social institution, it tends to affect the other institutions as well.
3.2 Major Types and Functions of Social Institutions
There are many principles around which institution are organized. The five social institutions of
major significance are:
1. Economic institutions: those that deal with economic and property relations;
2. Polity and law: Those that are concerned with social control with politics and law
government, the police, court, etc;
3. Religious institutions: Those concerned with the supernatural magic and religion;
4. Family: those based on principles of kinship, meaning, social relations created by descent
and marriage; and
5. Educational institutions: those that deal with the need for training individuals in the roles,
values, skills, knowledge, attitudes etc which are associated with being a citizen and a
worker.

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The primary functions of the five major social institutions are as follows.

3.2.1 The Family

The family is the most important social unit in any society. It is the building block of any society.
The family fulfills two basic functions. These are reproduction and socialization. Society
reproduces or recreates itself through the family. Children are born in the family to join the
society. Parents play the roles of nurturing, caring for, teaching and training children; children
are expected to play the roles of good and teachable trainees. The way parent‘s nurture, train and
care for their children vary according to forms of family organization.
Nuclear family is a dominant form of family organization in modern, industrialized and urban
societies. It usually consists of husband wife and dependent children. In traditional, agrarian and
rural societies, Extruded family form dominates.
3.2.1.1 The Concept of Marriage and Family
The family is a relatively permanent group of persons. They are linked in social roles by ties of
blood, marriage or adoption. Members are living together; they cooperate economically and in
the rearing of children. Broadly speaking there are two forms of families. The nuclear and the
extended:
A family that contains of the husband, the wife and their children is termed as nuclear family.
In addition to the husband the wife and their children a family may consists relatives such as the
in-laws. This kind of family is termed as extended family. Many families in Kenya in general
and particularly in the countryside are extended families.
The family is usually defined as a kinship group linked by blood and marriage and occupying a
common household. A household is not the same thing as the family. It refers to all persons
occupying the same house. These include relatives as well as lodgers. The family as a social
group is made up of a man, his wife or wives and children living under a common roof,
interacting and influencing the behaviors of each other in a more intimate manner than with
others who do not belong to it. As a social institution the family entails the formalized, regular
and patterned way or process by which family life is carried out.
3.2.1.2 Features of the Rural Family
The rural family is characterized by many features such as families, production and consumption
of goods and services, continuity, size, child bearing and rearing, socialization, participation in

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family decision making, marital expectations and evaluation. Families could be described as the
degree to which members of the family show solidarity in the process of performing the
multifarious role of the family institution. It involves the following factors:
The extent to which personal goals are made secondary to be consistent with family goals
 The extent to which control is exerted over individual members so that family values are
imposed on each member, who in turn accepts the values
 Personal security of individual members of a family which shows families is generated by
members through their deep sense of integration into the family.
It embodies an inter-generational family group in which many generations live under one roof
near one another.
Existence of family property such as land, house, shares in companies, animals and farm crops.
This practice discovers age‘s individualism among members.
 Continuity of the family ensures that members bring in their children into the fold so that it
does not discontinue when certain members die.
Mutual help exists among members who are assisted to set up their own farms, pay education
costs, dowries, burial and other forms of expenses when the need arises.
3.2.1.3 The Function of the Family
The family performs many societal functions to ensure the welfare and progress of its members.
The functions include:
Reproduction of the human species; that is grant life
Care and rearing of the young offspring particularly at infancy and years of dependence.
Education of the children.
Protection from enemies, danger and psychological isolation, provision of love and affection
to reduce tension and frustration.
Care of the aged and disabled family members.
Production and consumption of goods and services.
Moral and financial support to family members in time of joy and trouble.
Social, psychological and material support in time of bereavement, disaster or other forms or
adversities.

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 Provide socialization. That is, the family equips the individual with the knowledge which
he/she will need in order to play his/her roles in the society.
3.2.2 Educational Institution
This social institution is responsible for providing training for the members of society. It serves
as center of knowledge production, exchange, and distribution. Generally, educational
institutions are responsible forth vertical and horizontal transmission of material and non-
material cultures. Vertical transmission means overtime from one generation to another
generation; whereas horizontal transmission means over geographical space or from one society
to another. Educational institutions also play the role of preparing members of society for the
statuses and roles that re associate with being good citizens and workers, holding various
occupations.
Education is the process of transmitting the socially approved cultural heritage of any society
from one generation to another. It is also the process by which the new knowledge is spread
among members of a society. The cultural heritage and knowledge are transferred through
education. Education as an activity is the process of transmitting and acquiring the socially
approved aspects of cultural heritage. The school is the social organization in which education
takes place. The process of socialization or culture learning usually starts informally in the
family, churches, mosques, the community and then formally in schools. Education in the formal
sense has come to mean systematic training by specialists within the formal organization of the
school.
3.2.2.1 Functions of Education
The functions of educational institutions include the following:
1) The transmission of the culture from one generation to another. This is the normal
socialization function which involves the teaching of societal values, norms, taboos, rotes, folk
ways among others to the new entrant into the society (Ekong, 1988).
2) Bringing about social change via the modification of cultural heritage and development of
new knowledge skills, arts and artifacts. New knowledge is acquired through research and
present experience has shown that technologically advanced nations invest more on research than
developing nations.

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3) Training of people for specialized adult roles. This involves learning of new skills through
apprenticeship, acquisition of knowledge, tutorship or indoctrination, or by formal educational
institutions.
4) Provision of a setting for school interaction. The school brings people from diverse
background into constant interaction.
5) Differentiation of people in the society and validation of their social status. In most
contemporary society, the acquisition of formal education and possession of some certificate
ensure the entry of individual into prestigious jobs.
3.2.2.2 Types of Education in Rural Kenya
There are various forms of formal educational facilities in rural Kenya. These include the
following:
1. Extension Education: This is an informal out-of-school education given to rural families by
experts in agriculture, home economics, health, small-scale industries among others. This type of
education is often known as extension education.
2. Adult Education: This is semi-formal literacy education organized for adults who had no
opportunity to acquire formal education at earlier age.
3. Formal Education: This is the type of education offered at the primary and secondary levels
to rural children and adolescents.
3.2.3 Religious Institution
This social institution is responsible for meeting (providing) spiritual needs of the members of
the society. There are puzzling questions about the meaning of the human life, human destiny,
the universe, and other questions.
Religion and related institutions like magic provide explanations for these puzzling paradoxes of
life and provides meaning and purpose for life. It helps people to cope with purposelessness,
meaninglessness and sense of alienation and frustration. These institutions also help members of
society conform to social values and norms, and play their expected social roles appropriately.
They also provide a sense of social solidarity among members of society.

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3.2.3.1 The Function of Religion
Integrative: Religion integrates people. It brings the believers together and creates the sense of
oneness and cooperation.
Social control: Religion server to promote stability, peace and order.
Social Support: Religion develops the sense of hope or comfort. For instance, illness, life
hardship and misfortune etc
Generally, Religion fulfils certain universal functions which include:
1. The explanation of the unknown and irregular physical occurrences e.g. flood, earthquakes,
drought, lightening, etc.
2. The justification of human existence by stating the nature and role of man in terms of super
natural design.
3. Promotion of group solidarity as religion is a cultural possession.
4. The celebration of human achievement. That is, most rituals are connected with some crucial
periods in the society. Examples are puberty, planting of crops, harvest, etc.
5. Strengthening of moral order and promotion of social control.
6. Support for other social organizations and institutions, e.g. schools, hospital, welfare agencies,
etc.
7. The rationalization of individual suffering in the material world thereby making such suffering
bearable (Ekong, 1988).
3.2.4 Political Institution (Government and Law)
These social institutions are responsible for protecting the society from internal disorder, crime
and chaos; as well as from external threats and invasion. They are responsible for maintaining
peace and order at micro and macro levels; enforcing social control; and maintaining the welfare
and well-being of society.
3.2.5 Economic Institution
Every society needs to make effective use of the scarce resources. Goods and services have to be
produced to meet the basic needs such as food, clothing, sheltered. Economic institutions are
responsible for organizing the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods and
services.

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CHAPTER FOUR
SOCIALIZATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
4.1 The Concept of Socialization:
4.1.1 Definition and Necessity
In any society there are socially recognized ways in which the norms and values of the society
are inculcated in the human infant who comes into this world as a biological organism with
animalistic needs or impulses. Individuals learn group-defined ways of acting and behaving, and
what they socially learn becomes part of their personality.
Socialization is a process of making somebody social and fully human or more appropriately, it
is a process whereby individual persons learn and are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs,
skills, attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a specific social group or society. It is
an on-going, never ending process- from cradle to the grave. That means an individual person
passes through various stages of socialization, from birth to death. Thus, we need socialization as
infants, preschool children, schoolboys/girls, pubescent, adolescents, adults and older persons.
From the point of view of individual persons, especially a newly born baby, socialization is a
process whereby a biological being or organism is changed into a social being. In terms of the
group, society or any professional organizations, socialization is a process whereby the
organizations', social groups' and society's structure and well-being are kept and sustained. It is
the process whereby the culture, skills, norms, traditions, customs, etc., are transmitted from
generation to generation – or from one society to another.
Socialization may be formal or informal. It becomes formal when it is conducted by formally
organized social groups and institutions, like schools, religious centers, mass media universities,
work places, military training centers, internships, etc. It is informal when it is carried out
through the informal social interactions and relationships at micro-levels, at interpersonal and
small social group levels. The most important socialization for us is that we get through informal
agents like family, parents, neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a very powerful
influence, whether negative or positive, in our lives.
The process of socialization, whether it is formal or informal, is vitally important to both
individuals and society. Without some kind of socialization, society would cease to exist.
Socialization, thus, can be labeled as the way by which culture is transmitted and individuals are
fitted into the society's organized way of life.

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4.1.2 The Goals of Socialization
In terms of individual persons, the goal of socialization is to equip him or her with the basic
values, norms, skills, etc, so that they will behave and act properly in the social group to which
they belong. Socialization has also the following specific goals.
 To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate
gratification; a child who is toilet-trained will relieving himself/ herself until the proper
environment is created.
 To instill aspirations;
 To teach social roles;
 To teach skills;
 To teach conformity to norms; and
 To create acceptable and constructive personal identities.

4.1.3 Human Biological Bases of, and Capacity for, Socialization

From among the animal kingdom, humans are the only ones who are capable of socialization
because they are endowed with the necessary biological bases that are lacking in other animals.
The following are the key biological characteristics of human beings on which socialization is
based:
Absence of Instincts: The term "instinct" in its current social science usage refers to the
complex behavior patterns for which some animal species as biologically program(s). For
example, nest-building among birds is an indistinct. But humans have no comparable behavior
patterns which are biologically fixed, although they have innumerable built-in physiological
reflexes. Human have biological drives or impulses such as hunger, thirst, sextet, rather than
instincts. This absence of instincts makes humans dependent on social direction and their
behaviors are amenable to such direction. The open-endedness of humans is thus the biological
ground for social conformity.
Social Contact Needs: Humans need sustained social contacts. Studies conducted on primates
and human infants revealed that lack of body stimulation and contact in infancy appear to inhibit
and prevent the development of higher learning functions. Satisfaction of the social contact and
initiations needs in humans is strong biological imperative.

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 16

Longer Period of Childhood Dependence: A third biological condition that makes extensive
socialization essential for humans is that the human infant need much longer period of physical
dependence and sexual immaturity than other animals. The need to acquire the techniques and
skills of social living further prolongs the dependence. Such longer period of dependence, during
which the child is cared for and controlled by others, results in an intense emotional dependence
that remains throughout life.
Capacity to Learn: A high level of intelligence is an innate human biological potential. Hence,
humans are highly educable; they can learn much more than other animals and can continue to
learn more over a longer period of time.
Language: Man's ability to learn is a function of his capacity for language. Other animals may
have some degree of intelligence but only humans have reasoning capacity because they have
language. Language expresses and arouses emotion; conveys feelings, values and knowledge.
Whether as vehicle for knowledge or for attitude, language is the key factor in the creation of
human society. Symbolic communication, which is possessed only by humans, makes language
possible. Humans innately possess the potential and capacity to create culture and to be guided
by cultural and social norms. At the center of all these is language.
4.1.4 Patterns of Socialization
There are two broadly classified patterns of socialization. These are: Repressive and
participatory socialization. Repressive socialization is oriented towards gaining obedience,
while participatory socialization is oriented towards gaining the participation of the child.
Table 4.1: Two modes of socialization, adapted from Broom and Selznick (1973)
Repressive Socialization Participatory Socialization
Punishing wrong behavior Rewarding good behavior
Material rewards and punishment Symbolic rewards and punishment
Obedience of child Autonomy of child
Non-verbal communication Verbal communication
Communication as command Communication as interaction
Parent-centered socialization Child-centered socialization
Child's discernment of parents' wishes Parents' discernment of child's needs
Family as significant other Family as generalized other

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 17

4.1.4.1 Major Types of Socialization
There are different types of socialization; the major ones include: primary or childhood
socialization, secondary or adulthood socialization, de-socialization and re-socialization.
Other minor types of socialization include: anticipatory socialization and reverse socialization
(Calhoun et al, 1994; Henslin and Nelson, 1995; Soroka, 1996; Macionis, 1997).
A. Primary or Childhood Socialization
This is also called basic or early socialization. The terms "primary", "basic" or "early" all signify
the overriding importance of the childhood period for socialization. Much of the personality
make-up of individuals is forged at this period in life. Socialization at this stage of life is a
landmark; without it, we would cease to become social beings. The human infant who is a
biological being or organism is changed into a social being mainly at this early stage. Hence,
children should be appropriately socialized from birth up to particularly five years of age,
because this period is basic and crucial one. A child who does not get appropriate socialization at
this stage will most likely be deficient in his/her social, moral, intellectual and personality
development. Some grow up developing anti-social attitudes, aspirations and practices.
B. Secondary or Adult Socialization
While socialization is an overbidding issue for children and adolescents, it is a never-ending
process that continues throughout life. Secondary or adult socialization is necessitated when
individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves according to their changes social statuses
and roles, as in starting marital life. The socialization process at this stage may sometimes be
intense. For example, fresh college graduates entering the world of work to start their first jobs,
there are quite many new roles to be mastered. Intense adult socialization may also occur among
immigrants. When they go to other countries, they may need to learn the language, values, norms,
and a host of other custom and folkways, coupled with experiencing economic hardships may
prove to be truly stressful and most challenging. Although it may be fairly stated that childhood
socialization experiences what kind of people we become, the challenges of socialization thus
continues in late adolescent and adult stages. This happens to be so particularly in the context of
fast changing world in complex societies.

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C. Re-socialization and De-socialization
In the lives of individuals, as they pass through different stages and life experiences, there is the
need for re-socialization and de-socialization. Re-socialization means the adoption by adults of
radically different norms and life ways that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous
norms and values. Re-socialization signifies the rapid and more basic changes in the adult life.
The change may demand abandonment of one life way with a new one, which is completely
different from, and also incompatible with, the former.
This quite so often happens as adult life in modern society‘s demands sharp transitions and
changes. De-socialization typically precedes re-socialization. De-socialization refers to stripping
individuals of their former life styles, beliefs, values and attitudes so that they may take up other
partially or totally new life styles, attitudes and values. The individuals have to abandon their
former values and take up new ones in order to become part of the new social group.
De-socialization and re-socialization often take place in what is called total institutions, which
are an all-encompassing and often isolated from the community. They demand a thorough de-
socialization of the new entrants before they assume full-fledged membership.
Total institutions include: mental hospitals, prisons, religious denominations and some other
political groups, and military units. In each case, persons joining the new setting have first to be
de-socialized, before they are re-socialized.
Re-socialization may also mean socializing individuals again into their former values and norms,
after they rejoin their former ways of life, spending a relatively longer period of time in total
institutions. This is because they might have forgotten most of the basic values and skills of the
former group or society. This kind of re-socialization may also be regarded as reintegration,
helping the ex-community members renew their memories of their former life ways, skills,
knowledge, etc.

D. Anticipatory Socialization
Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which individuals
try to learn and internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills of a social status or occupation
for which they are likely recruits in the future. They do this in anticipating the actual
forthcoming socialization. It involves a kind of rehearsal and preparations in advance to have a
feel of what the new role would look like. However, anticipatory socialization may not be

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 19

adequate when the nature and scope of life transition is complex. It may be difficult to fully
anticipate what will happen.
4.1.5 Agents and Components of Socialization
Agents of socialization are the different groups of people and institutional arrangements which
are responsible for training new members of society. Some of them could be formal, while others
are informal. They help individual members get into the overall activities of their society.
There are three components to socialization process. There is the socialize who could be either a
newborn child, a recruit to the army or the police force or afresh man in a college or an intern in
medical service. Then again there are the socializes who may be parents, peer groups,
community members, teachers or church members. Both the socialized and the socialize interact
with one another not in a vacuum but in a social environment which plays an important role in
the socialization process. These different socializing environments are called socialization
settings. The most socializing agencies are the family, peer relationships, schools, neighborhoods
(the community), the mass media, etc.
The institution of family is generally regarded as the most important agent of socialization. In the
process of socialization, the most important contacts are between child and his/her parents and
siblings. The contacts could also be between the child and surrogate parents when actual parents
are not available. Besides the child‘s parents, there are other agents of socialization (in modern
societies) such as day-care-centers, nurseries and kindergarten, as well as primary and secondary
schools and universities. It seems that these various agents of socialization have partially taken
over the function of the parents, particularly in modern societies, where women are increasingly
leaving their traditional home-based responsibilities by engaging in employment outside home.
The school represents a formal and conscious effort by a society to socialize its young. Other
than parents and schools, peer groups play very significant roles in the socialization process.
Sometimes, the influence of the peer group is it negative or positive can be as powerful as that of
parents. The peer group may transmit prevailing societal values or develop new and distinct
cultures of its own with peculiar values.
The mass media such as television, radio, movies, videos, tapes, books, magazines and
newspapers are also important agents of socialization. The most crucial effect on children comes
from television, as studies show. The effects are both negative and positive.
Negative impact seem to be greater that parents and other concerned bodies worry about the way

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 20

television is socializing children. For example, studies show that watching violence on television
can encourage aggressive behavior in children.
4.2 Social Stratification
Social stratification is one of the outcomes of the continuous occurring of social processes. Every
society is segmented in to different hierarchies. In virtually all societies, some people are
regarded as more important than others (more worthy of respect than others), either within the
society as a whole or in a certain situations.
Social stratification is the segmentation of society into different hierarchical arrangement or
strata. It refers tithe differences and inequalities in the socioeconomic life of people in a given
society. It represents the ranking of individuals or social positions and statuses in the social
structure. When applied to the world of people, it refers to hierarchical arrangement of people
into different classes or strata which is the division of a population into two or more layers, each
of which is relatively homogenous, between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions,
rewards and obligations
4.2.1 Theories of Social Stratification
There are various theories of social stratification concerning its importance, origin and value, of
which two important theories are the following;
1) The functionalist theory of social stratification
2) The conflict theory of social stratification
Conflict theory: According to Marx, the reason for the existence of social classes is, basically,
economic. Society is mainly divided in to exploiters and exploited. Thus, the two classes have
different culture. The solution for such inequality is social revolution.
Functionalist: According to Max Weber, class, status and power are the components of
stratification.
 Class refers to economic i.e. people with similar income
 Status refers to position regardless of income or prestige
 Power comes from the opportunity of holding position in the bureaucracy or political
party etc.
Examples: Coffee producer peasant may earn much. However she/he has lower status than a
health extension worker who earns relatively little.

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According to the proponents of the functionalist theory, segments or hierarchies and social
inequalities exist in all societies. Moreover, their main argument is that social stratification is
functional and purposeful and also essential in any society. They contend that no society is
classless or unstratified, and social stratification is universally necessary. Social stratification in
short is universal, functional, inevitable, and beneficial and something which can't be avoided.
The proponents of the conflict theory of social stratification also accept the fact that social
inequality exists in every society. But they do not believe that social stratification is functional.
According to conflict theorists, it is the way of oppressing one group of people by another
(Calhoun et al., 1994).

4.2.2 Forms of Social Stratification

Systems of Stratification
Stratification is universal. Every society has its own ways of stratification based on inequality.
Stratification has different forms: System of slavery, estate, cast and class.
1) Slavery: It is a system where society is divided in to slave owner and slaves. Slavery is one of
the worst forms of stratification.
2) Estate: It is a system where society is divided into land lords and peasants. Ethiopia in the
feudal era is a good example of estate system.
3) Cast System: Another well-known form of social stratification is the caste system. The
system is based on religious and other strongly rooted traditional belief that cannot be changed or
are very difficult to change. This is the form of social stratification whereby classification of
people into different strata is made on the basis of usually religious and other very strong
conventions/ traditions that are difficult to change.

In Kenya, social stratification is primarily based on ethnicity, socioeconomic status (linked to

wealth and occupation), geographic location, and education level; with the most prominent forms
being tribal/ethnic stratification, class stratification based on economic standing, and rural-urban
divides contributing to social inequality within the country.
Key aspects of social stratification in Kenya:

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 22

  Ethnic Stratification:
o Kenya is a multi-ethnic society with various tribes like Kikuyu, Luo, Kalenjin,
Luhya, and Maasai e.t.c each with varying levels of social and political power.
o Historical power dynamics and access to resources can lead to disparities between
ethnic groups.
o Political representation and access to jobs can be influenced by ethnicity.
 Socioeconomic Class Stratification:
o Wealth distribution is uneven, with a small elite class controlling significant
economic power compared to the larger working class and marginalized
populations.
o Factors like income, occupation, and education level contribute to determining
social class.
o Urban areas tend to have a more visible class structure compared to rural regions.
 Rural-Urban Divide:
o Access to quality healthcare, education, and infrastructure is significantly
different between urban and rural areas, contributing to social inequality.
o Rural communities often face economic challenges and limited opportunities for
upward mobility.

Other factors contributing to social stratification in Kenya:

 Gender inequality:

Women face systemic disadvantages in terms of access to education, employment

opportunities, and political participation.

Caste-like systems:
Some communities within Kenya have social hierarchies based on birth and lineage, although not
as rigid as traditional caste systems.
Colonial legacy:
The historical power dynamics established during British colonial rule continue to influence
social stratification today.

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4) Class Systems: Social classes are groups of people who are stratified into different categories.
In a more general sense, social class can be defined as a category or level of people found in
similar positions in the social hierarchy. The criteria or the bases for dividing people in a given
society into different social classes may include wealth, occupation, education, sex, family
background, religion, income, among others. The societies in modern world have been divided
usually into three; low class, middle class and upper class. Each of these three classes is usually
divided in to sub-classes. Social class is often characterized as an open and flexible system. Thus,
we have societies which can be characterized as open system, as opposed to societies having
closed system. This form of social class is common in industrialized, modern, heterogeneous and
literate societies. Such system generally works in most contemporary societies of the world
(Stockard, 1997).

Sociologists measure stratification from the angel of social classes. This means, individuals are
assigned to social class based on different criteria. This includes education, occupation and
income. Education can give us high prestige. Many known intellectuals are good examples.
Occupation and income are also the other factors.

Example: By virtue of occupation an engineer or a lecturer may have higher prestige. However,
a merchant with similar educational background may have lesser prestige than the engineer or
the lecturer.
It is very difficult to put clear division in class system. Hard work, talent and chance, among
others, determine the social category of persons. In class system, there are two ways that
influence the social category: ascribed status, and achieved status.

Ascribed Status: It is a social position assigned to a person without the person‘s unique
character or talent. Gender, age, race could also be the source of ascribed status. By virtue of
being female, or disabled a person can occupy lower status.

Achieved Status: It is a social position that people attain through their own talent or effort.

5) Stratification by Gender
Gender Identity and Gender Role
The difference between women and men can be seen from two angles. The first is biological:
their significance difference is the chromosomes, reproductive capacity and sexual organs.
Second, culturally women and men have different social roles: women are responsible for

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 24

household affair and child care while men are income earners. The term sex refers to male and
female that is directly related to the biological differentiation. The concept gender on the other
hand implies the cultural behavior that both sexes show.
Gender role socialization
The family socializes girls and boys differently. In most societies girls are socialized to act softly.
On the other hand, boys are expected to be tough and act daringly. This process is decisive in
fixing gender roles. While other institutions also re-inference this mode of socialization,
educational institutions try to reverse the situation.
6) Social Stratification by Age: Aging is an aspect of socialization; moreover age stratification
is the other aspect of in equality. This means, like other stratifications there is also age
stratification that affects the elderly. Many societies highly respect old people. However, the
aged are among the disadvantaged groups and are victims of in equality. Aging is a relative
matter. Aging depends not on our physical/ mental deterioration; but also on how the society
perceives. Age limit, particularly in the modern world, is institutionalized. According to a
common consensus old age begins at 65.
4.2.3 Consequences of Social Stratification on the Lives of Individuals
Social stratification has crucial implications for the health and well-being of people. Social
stratification is directly related to the issue of inequality, power imbalance etc, and these directly
or indirectly influences the life chances of individuals in the social strata. Health status of
individuals is among one of these life chances which can be significantly affected by one‘s
location in the stratification system. The different stratification systems on the basis of age, sex,
gender, ethnicity, religion, occupation, etc, directly or indirectly promote unequal chances of
living standards. The key concepts in the relation between health and social stratification are the
concepts of vulnerability, risk and hazard. Vulnerability is a sociological concept which refers
to the characteristics of individuals and social groups [along the lines of gender, age, ethnicity,
occupation etc;] that determine [their capacity] to protect themselves, withstand and recover
from disasters, including health hazards based on their access to material and non-material
resources

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CHAPTER FIVE: SOCIAL CHANGE
5.1 Definition of Rural Social Change
We often hear older people say ―the world is not what it used to be any longer. This statement
may mean that values or physical structures have changed or that there have been so many
innovations in the society that keeping abreast with them is becoming a frustrating experience.
The foregoing statement however sums up the meaning of the term. ―Social change Rogers
(1989) defined social change more specifically as ―the process by which alterations occur in the
structure and function of a social system‖. The social system in this definition may be a social
group, a community, a city, a region or a nation. Any change that occurs either in ideas, norms,
values, roles and social habits of a people or in the composition or organization of their society
can be referred to as social change. Moore (1983) defined social change as ―the significant
alteration of social structures (i.e. of patterns of social action and interaction), including
consequences and manifestation of such structures embodied in norms (rules of conduct), values,
and cultural products and symbols.
One basic feature in the life of all living and non-living things is change. When it takes place in
the lives of interacting human beings, it is termed social change. When it is viewed within the
rural setting, it is termed rural social change. The fact is that changes take place in the rural,
suburban and urban areas. Change could be in all attributes of a societal unit such as in number,
quality and importance. It could be introduced from internal or external sources to the society or
both. It could be planned, when it is more effective and predictable, or unplanned.
5.2 Typology of Rural Social Change
Many types of social change are noticeable in the lives of the rural population. With the rise in
aspiration and outlook brought about through colonialism, improved transportation and
communication systems which led to increase in contact with the advanced industrial world,
great social changes are taking place in the less developed societies. The various types of such
changes are:
1. Economic Change: Rural areas of the developing world had undergone some degree of
economic change particularly during the post-independence era. In Nigeria for example, with the
increase exploitation of petroleum resources, salaries of workers have increased in government
establishments over the past three decades. A greater number of roads have been constructed to
link rural with urban areas. Some dual carriage expressways have been constructed in the

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 26

economically most active parts of the country to link goods from the rural areas and major cities
to the sea for export. It is obvious that changes in the processing, storage and distribution of
economic goods have been rather slow. Processing of agricultural commodities is virtually non-
existent. Storage of agricultural products such as maize, cowpea and rice is still largely in bags,
grounds, bare flour and ceilings of buildings. A recent practice of storing in cribs is only fairly
satisfactory. The use of silo for grain storage or refrigeration for preserving fresh fruits, fish and
vegetables is not a common feature.
2. Political Change: This deals with the change on the distributions and operating mechanisms
of social and political power within the social system. For example, some of our traditional
societies had a monolithic power structure with recognized chieftains-Emirs and Obas whereas
some had no paramount chiefs ruling over the entire group but rather governed themselves on the
basis of lineages. With the arrival of the British, chiefs were created where none ever existed;
later on with independence, provinces, regions, districts, local government areas among others
were introduced which completely changed the preexisting political boundaries and structures.
The laws of the land became centralized issue and law enforcement and maintenance of peace
and order were removed from the immediate jurisdiction of the traditional leaders. Therefore
erstwhile powerful traditional rulers have now been reduced in power status to mere titular heads.
Western concept of democracy has also been introduced into the political system thereby making
citizens of today more aware of their rights and to challenge and eschew any form of
authoritarianism. These are all, political changes.
3. Technological Change: Technology entails ways of applying scientific and other organized
knowledge to practical task. Technological change therefore is continuous process of change
within technical material and physical practices in a culture. Technological changes are evident
in our society in the areas of:
1) Transportation, where river crafts have been modernized for greater speed and comfort, head
portage and use of animals have been replaced with lorries, trucks, railway trains etc, narrow foot
paths have been replaced by wide mechanized thoroughfares;
2) Communication, where oral transmission of messages by personal contact or through
messengers has been replaced by the postal system, newspapers, wireless and electronic media;
3) Health, where traditional healing based on superstitions beliefs in supernatural forces has been
largely replaced by scientific medicine and hospital care;

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4) Education, where socialization by imitation and direct teaching of basic skills has been
enriched by formal instructions in schools using books containing scientific knowledge and other
scientifically designed audio-visual equipment;
5) Economy, where traditional farming has been transformed through the introduction of cash
crops, improved breeds of crops and livestock, agricultural chemicals, improved processing and
storage techniques;
6) Leisure, where specific scientific knowledge has been applied in the enrichment of the quality
and variety of leisure and recreational facilities now abounding in our society. The cinema,
television, various games and sports, etc. are direct results of technological change;
7) Housing, where traditional houses constructed with mud, sticks and leaves are gradually
giving way to permanent structures constructed out of cement blocks, iron, glass and other
products of modern technology. These are just a few areas where a great deal of change has
taken place as a result of technology.
4. Cultural Change: Culture consists of material and non-material aspects. Cultural change is
thus interactions in the non-materials and artifacts of the society. The material aspects of cultural
change are mainly technical. Examples are use of aluminum cooking pots instead of clay pots,
use of metal eating plates and utensils instead of clay plates and wooden utensils, use of clucks
and wrist watches to observe time instead of observing the position of the sun and relying on
cock crow. The change in non-material aspects of culture are also numerous.
If the institution of the rural family is considered as social system in terms of its elements and
processes, the cultural changes which had taken place can be elucidated with some examples.
The norm of not calling elders by their name still persists as a reflection of the value of respect
for age which is universally resistant to change. Premarital virginity has declined as a value with
increased contact of rural females with more people beyond their communities.
Sanctions are exercised largely by the police and the courts when these are beyond the control of
the family and the community elders. The change from the traditional way of worship which
entailed the recognition of several gods (Polytheism) to Christianity and Islamism which
emphasize one god (monotheism) is a good example of cultural change.

5. Behavioral Change: This may also be regarded as part of cultural change but it specifically
embraces changes arising from the influence of education on the attitude and overt reactions of

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 28

people. Behavioral change includes favorable change in the knowledge, skill, and attitude of
people as a result of their exposures to educational experiences. Residents of rural areas are often
exposed to information which had led to acquisition of better knowledge, skill and attitude in the
economic and social spheres.
Agriculture is the major occupation of rural people. Improvements in knowledge of crop and
livestock pest and disease control measures, higher yielding crop varieties, better spacing of
crops, weeding, cultivation, harvesting storage and marketing operations had taken place. The
skill to practice such knowledge is also taught largely by extension workers via the method
demonstration technique, various attitudes such as clearing of livestock pens without getting
scared by the odor of droppings, handling young animals such as piglets without developing the
goose skin, waking up early in the morning to take care of livestock, are also learned.
5.3 Characteristics of Social Change
A basic characteristic of every society is change in nature. Societies are in a continued state of
change. We have to always be conscious of the time frame and identify the time span and take an
analytical assessment of what people have written before arriving at a conclusion. Social change
has the following characteristics:
1) Space and Time Characteristics: In analyzing any change process, the researcher must
specify both the geographical location and the period of time. If it is not done, level of
generalization becomes very high.
2) Resistance to Change: In any change process, there will be some forces which will be
resistant to change. These forces tend to promote status quo even though there may be very
strong forces working towards change. Forces like industrialization, urbanization or scientific
innovation will promote change. But processes like socialization and social control will attempt
to maintain the same status quo. In any change that you want to introduce, there must be
resistance.
3) Differential Rate of Change: It is important to understand that not all societies or all parts
within a given society change at the same speed. Urban areas may change faster than rural areas;
educational characteristics may change faster than religious characteristics. We have to realize
that societies change at different rates.
4) Change is Inevitable: It is normal, necessary and expected. Since people have different ideas,
there are bound to be changes.

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5) Unchanging Elements in a Changing Society: We do have certain bias, beliefs (religions)
that we do hold on to, something that can give a certain kind of meaning. We hold on to themes a
kind of security. There are certain things that people hold onto even though the society keeps on
changing. The importance is that when there is a change and the rural people still hold on to their
beliefs and values, you have to realize that there are some elements of importance to it and allow
them to hold on to it.
6) Subjective Nature of Progress: Change itself can be evaluated objectively, but progress
requires subjective evaluation as to what is an improvement. What you may seas progress may
not be progress at all to others? Improvement must note from the agricultural agents‘ perspective
alone but from the ruralities‘ perspective too.
7) Planned and Unplanned Changes: Many of the changes societies go through are unplanned
but as the societies become more complex with different challenges they meet, the need for
planning becomes more acute. Therefore, it is no longer acceptable to simply wait for what will
happen or to hope for the best, but we must actively seek for solution to our increasing complex
problem.
5.4 Sources of Change in the Society
Social changes are brought about mainly through invention, diffusion and discovery.
Invention: This involves the recombination of existing cultural traits to fashion new things and
the rate at which this takes place is directly related to the existing cultural base;
Discovery: It is the sharing with others of a perception of a fact, object or relationship which has
always existed but was not known. Therefore, discovery can enhance the cultural base in a
society and thus the rate of invention.
Diffusion: It involves the spread of cultural traits from one group to another. Cultural diffusion
takes place both at the material and non-material levels and this process has been enhanced today
by:
1) Increased and more efficient communication facilities
2) The speed at which people can now travel from one part of the world to another and
3) The existence of specially trained personnel for the diffusion of innovations.
Other sources of social change in the society include:
Religious Institutions: These have brought changes mostly in the world view of individuals
through formal preaching, indoctrination and the use of metaphors to convert people from one

Agricultural Extension & Rural Sciology Notes, By Rael Lagat 30

way of life to another, and by the opening and support of formal educational institutions where a
great number of Ethiopians have submitted to instructions in many aspects of life which together
has remolded the benefiting population.
Government Polices: Government policies aimed at social change can include legislation
addressing issues like civil rights, environmental protection, and labor standards, funding for
non-profit organizations tackling social problems, public awareness campaigns on critical issues,
and programs designed to improve access to education, healthcare, and housing, essentially
creating a framework to promote positive societal shifts by directly impacting marginalized
groups and vulnerable populations.
Application of Science and Technology: Technology implies the application of scientific
knowledge to the solution of specific task. The patterns of daily life in most rural settlements
have changed considerably today as a result of rural electrification and water supply schemes. A
variety of alien food and cash crops have been accommodated within the traditional farming
systems and we now raise and enjoy exotic breeds of livestock all as a result of research and
improved technology.
Natural Physical Forces: These include natural forces like wind, flood, drought, erosion, insect
and pest infestation and all such elements of the physical and biological environments. Erosion
and floods have necessitated the relocation of villages while excessive droughts have caused the
migration of the whole population within a region. These physical forces generally inflict
disaster (which is a change in its own right) which then calls for the application of other
mechanisms to bring about solution.
Urbanization: The growth of urbanization or cities has meant the attraction of youths and school
leavers to urban areas. Within the cities themselves, increase in population, rise of industries,
increase in retail and wholesale trades, etc. have called for great adjustments on the part of urban
dwellers.
5.5 Concept of Attitudes and Attitudes Change
Attitudes can be defined as the more or less permanent feelings, thought and predispositions a
person has about certain aspects of his environment. Its components are knowledge, feelings and
inclinations to act. In a more simple term, attitude can be defined as an evaluative disposition
towards some objects which has consequences for how a person would act vis-à-vis the attitude

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object. The emphasis here is on feelings or emotions. A change in attitude is referred to as
attitude change.
Many social psychologists now assume that among other factors, behavior is influenced by
behavioral intentions; these intentions are not influenced by attitudes of people alone.
Attitudes influence behavior and the analysis of attitudes usually produces a model of behavioral
change which is used by extension agents to persuade their clients to behave in a certain way or
to adopt innovations disseminated them.
Extension agents would have to arouse their clients‘ attention by prosecuting their message in
such a way that the clients select it from the vast array of messages available to them. The
message is presented to the clients in such a way that the clients understand it. The client then
should be helped to balance the advantages and disadvantages of the new behavior innovation. If
the extension agent comes with a message which deviates widely from the client‘s present
opinion, the message will be rejected. If the change advocated by the extension agent is
favorably accepted in the client social environment, there is an increased probability that the
clients will change their intention. It is quite possible to have a change in behavior if there are
other changes. In the environment for example, fertilizer may be added to improve varieties of
maize or availability of inputs. The farmers may revert back to their old behavior unless
feedback, teaches them how their changed behavior will help them to achieve their goals more
effectively.

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