Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide
1. Math Functions
Math functions are used to perform mathematical operations in SQL.
1.1 POWER(x, y): Returns the result of x raised to the power y.
Example: POWER(2, 3) -> 8
1.2 ROUND(x, d): Rounds the number x to d decimal places. Useful for formatting results.
Example: ROUND(3.4567, 2) -> 3.46
1.3 MOD(x, y): Returns the remainder of x divided by y. Used for divisibility or alternating rows.
Example: MOD(10, 3) -> 1
2. Text/String Functions
Text functions are used to manipulate string values.
2.1 UPPER(text)/UCASE(text): Converts all characters to uppercase.
Example: UPPER('hello') -> 'HELLO'
2.2 LOWER(text)/LCASE(text): Converts all characters to lowercase.
Example: LOWER('WORLD') -> 'world'
2.3 MID(text, start, length) / SUBSTRING(text, start, length): Extracts part of a string from a given position.
Example: MID('COMPUTER', 2, 3) -> 'OMP'
2.4 LENGTH(text): Returns number of characters in the string including spaces.
Example: LENGTH('DATA') -> 4
2.5 LEFT(text, n): Returns first n characters from the left side.
Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide
Example: LEFT('HELLO', 2) -> 'HE'
2.6 RIGHT(text, n): Returns last n characters from the right side.
Example: RIGHT('HELLO', 3) -> 'LLO'
2.7 INSTR(text, subtext): Returns position of subtext in the string.
Example: INSTR('HELLO', 'L') -> 3
2.8 LTRIM(), RTRIM(), TRIM(): Used to remove extra spaces.
LTRIM(' hello') -> 'hello'
RTRIM('hello ') -> 'hello'
TRIM(' hello ') -> 'hello'
3. Date Functions
Date functions are used to manipulate and extract information from date values.
3.1 NOW(): Returns current system date and time.
3.2 DATE(): Extracts only the date from a datetime value.
Example: DATE(NOW()) -> '2025-04-08'
3.3 MONTH(date): Returns the month as a number (1-12).
Example: MONTH('2025-04-08') -> 4
3.4 MONTHNAME(date): Returns the full name of the month.
Example: MONTHNAME('2025-04-08') -> 'April'
3.5 YEAR(date): Returns the year part of the date.
Example: YEAR('2025-04-08') -> 2025
Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide
3.6 DAY(date): Returns the day of the month.
Example: DAY('2025-04-08') -> 8
3.7 DAYNAME(date): Returns the day name.
Example: DAYNAME('2025-04-08') -> 'Tuesday'
4. Aggregate Functions
Aggregate functions are used to calculate a single value from a group of rows.
MAX(column): Returns highest value from a column.
Example: MAX(marks)
MIN(column): Returns lowest value from a column.
Example: MIN(marks)
AVG(column): Calculates average value of a column.
Example: AVG(marks)
SUM(column): Returns total sum of values.
Example: SUM(marks)
COUNT(column): Counts non-null values.
Example: COUNT(name)
COUNT(*): Counts all rows including nulls.
Example: COUNT(*)
5. GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY
Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide
These clauses help to group, filter, and sort data.
GROUP BY: Groups rows based on a column value.
Example:
SELECT city, COUNT(*) FROM students GROUP BY city;
HAVING: Filters grouped results, used after GROUP BY.
Example:
SELECT city, COUNT(*) FROM students GROUP BY city HAVING COUNT(*) > 2;
ORDER BY: Sorts records in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order.
Example:
SELECT name, marks FROM students ORDER BY marks DESC;
6. Equi-Join (Joining Two Tables)
Equi-Join is used to retrieve data from two or more tables using a common column.
It uses the equality operator (=) to match rows.
Example:
Table1: students(roll, name)
Table2: marks(roll, subject, score)
Query:
SELECT students.name, marks.subject, marks.score
FROM students, marks
WHERE students.roll = marks.roll;
