Al-Mustaqbal University 1

Department of Fuel and Energy Techniques 1

Class (2nd)
Subject (Thermodynamic 1 )
Lecturer (Dr Esam Muhe Mohammed)
1st term – Lect. Two Introduction part 2-Thermodynamic properties)
)

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
A property of a system is a characteristic of the system which depends upon its
state, but not upon how the state is reached. There are two general types of
properties:
1. INTENSIVE PROPERTY:
These properties do not depend on the mass (size or the amount of material)
of the system it is a physical property of a system. of intensive properties
include (Temperature and pressure).
2. EXTENSIVE PROPERTY:
These properties depend on the mass of the system. Examples of extensive
properties include (volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy).
Extensive properties have two values (Total and Specific), total values have
the usual units of that property while specific values have the same units
divided by the units of mass. Extensive properties are often divided by mass
associated with them to obtain the intensive properties.
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 =𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒/𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ……(1)
3
For example, if the volume of a system of mass m (kg) is V (m ), then the specific
volume of matter within the system is (ʋ (m3/ kg) which is an intensive property.
The following properties are some of the most important thermodynamic
properties:

1. TEMPERATURE (T): is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot

body from a cold body. The temperature of a body is proportional to the stored
molecular energy i.e., the average molecular kinetic energy of the molecules in a
system. (A particular molecule does not have a temperature, it has energy. The gas
as a system has temperature). Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are
known as thermometers and those for measuring high temperatures are known as
pyrometers.

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 Al-Mustaqbal University 2
Department of Fuel and Energy Techniques
Class (2nd)
Subject (Thermodynamic 1 )
Lecturer (Dr Esam Muhe Mohammed)
1st term – Lect. Two Introduction part 2-Thermodynamic properties)
)

Several temperatures measuring scales came up from time to time. Different

temperature scales have different names based on the names of persons who
originated them and have different numerical values assigned to the reference
states.
a. CELSIUS SCALE OR CENTIGRADE SCALE: Anders Celsius gave this
Celsius or Centigrade scale using ice point of (0 °C) as the lower fixed point and
steam point of (100 ºC) as upper fixed point for developing the scale. It is denoted
by the letter (C). Ice point refers to the temperature at which freezing of water
takes place at standard atmospheric pressure. Steam point refers to the temperature
of water at which its vaporization takes place at standard atmospheric pressure.
The interval between the two fixed points was equally divided into 100 equal parts
and each part represented (1ºC).
b. FAHRENHEIT SCALE: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit gave another temperature
scale known as Fahrenheit scale and has the lower fixed point as (32 ºF) and the
upper fixed point as (212ºF). The interval between these two is equally divided into
180 parts. It is denoted by the letter F. Each part represents (1ºF). Fahrenheit Scale
is related to Celsius scale as follows:
𝑇F =1.8 𝑇C + 32 ………………. (2)
c. KELVIN SCALE: Kelvin scale proposed by Lord Kelvin is very commonly
used in thermodynamic analysis. It also defines the absolute zero temperature.
Zero-degree Kelvin or absolute zero temperature is taken as (-273 ºC). It is denoted
by the letter K. It is related to Celsius scale as given below:

𝑇K = 𝑇C + 273 …………(3)
d. RANKINE SCALE: it was developed by William John Macquorn Rankine, a
Scottish engineer. It is denoted by the letter R. It is related to Fahrenheit scale as
given below:

𝑇R = 𝑇F + 460 ………………. (4)

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 Al-Mustaqbal University 3
Department of Fuel and Energy Techniques
Class (2nd)
Subject (Thermodynamic 1 )
Lecturer (Dr Esam Muhe Mohammed)
1st term – Lect. Two Introduction part 2-Thermodynamic properties)
)

2- PRESSURE: it is the effect of a normal force acting on an area. If a force acts

at an angle to an area, only the normal component enters the definition of pressure.
The fundamental SI unit of pressure is (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa) or bar.
1bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa.
1 atm =101325 Pa= 1.01325 bar = 0.76 m (or 760 mm) Hg.
The pressure unit Pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice.
Therefore, its multiples kilo Pascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and mega Pascal (1 MPa = 106
Pa) are commonly used. Three other pressure units commonly used in practice
which are: bar, standard atmosphere (atm) and pound-force per square inch (psi).
The relationships between these units are:
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 14.696 psi
Most pressure measuring instrument measure the difference between the pressure
of a fluid and the pressure of the atmosphere. This pressure difference is called a
gauge pressure. In most thermodynamic relations absolute pressure must be used.

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 Al-Mustaqbal University 4
Department of Fuel and Energy Techniques
Class (2nd)
Subject (Thermodynamic 1 )
Lecturer (Dr Esam Muhe Mohammed)
1st term – Lect. Two Introduction part 2-Thermodynamic properties)
)

Absolute pressure is gage pressure plus the local atmospheric pressure:

𝑃abs = 𝑃gauge + 𝑃atm ………………(5)
The word “gage” is generally used in statements of gage pressure.
e.g., (P = 200 kPa) gage. If “gage” is not present, the pressure will, in general, be
an absolute pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is an absolute pressure and will be taken as (100 kPa) (at sea
level), unless otherwise stated. A negative gage pressure is often called a vacuum
pressure (𝑃vac) , and gages capable of reading negative pressures are vacuum gages
, which indicates the magnitude of the difference between the atmospheric and
absolute pressure so that:
𝑃abs = 𝑃atm – 𝑃vac ……………..(6)
Figure (1) shows the relationships between absolute and gauge pressure,

Figure (1) Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures.

Example (1): A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads (5.8 psi) at a location
where the atmospheric pressure is (14.5 psi). Determine the absolute pressure in
the chamber.
Solution: 𝑃abs = 𝑃atm – 𝑃vac =14.5−5.8=8.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖

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 Al-Mustaqbal University 5
Department of Fuel and Energy Techniques
Class (2nd)
Subject (Thermodynamic 1 )
Lecturer (Dr Esam Muhe Mohammed)
1st term – Lect. Two Introduction part 2-Thermodynamic properties)
)

3. VOLUME (V): is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by a closed

surface, for example: the space that a substance (solid, liquid, gas or plasma)
occupies or contains. Volume is an independent property.
4. INTERNAL ENERGY (U): is a property consisting of the combined molecular
kinetic and potential energies. This property is derived from the first law of
thermodynamics. Internal energy is a dependent property.
5. ENTHALPY (H): is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat
content of a system. It is equal to the internal energy of the system plus the product
of pressure and volume. Enthalpy is a dependent property.
6. ENTROPY (S): is a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of
a system's thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted
as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system. This property is derived
from the second law of thermodynamics. Entropy is a dependent property.

4. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Zeroth law of thermodynamics’ states that if two systems are each equal in
temperature to a third, they are equal in temperature to each other.
For example, we have three systems, System ‘1’ may consist of a mass of gas
enclosed in a rigid vessel fitted with a pressure gauge. If there is no change of
pressure when this system is brought into contact with system ‘2’ a block of iron,
then the two systems are equal in temperature (assuming that the systems 1 and 2
do not react each other chemically or electrically). Experiment reveals that if
system ‘1’ is brought into contact with a third system ‘3’ again with no change of
properties then systems ‘2’ and ‘3’ will show no change in their properties when
brought into contact provided, they do not react with each other chemically or
electrically. Therefore, ‘2’ and ‘3’ must be in equilibrium. This law was enunciated
by R.H. Fowler in the year 1931. However, since the first and second laws already
existed at that time, it was designated as zeroth law so that it precedes the first and
second laws to form a logical sequence.

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