HS-II MATHEMATICS NOTES

Topic- Functions or mappings

2.0: Introduction

The notion of functions is not only essential, but also very much fundamental in the study of
mathematics. A function in mathematics can be compared to a machine in an industry which
processes raw materials fed into it and manufactures our desired final finish products. In a very
similar way, a function in mathematics processes the elements in a set and finally gives us some
unique elements of our requirement. In a very crude sense, a function is a rule which normally
connects, corresponds, associates or relates (in mathematical sense) the elements in a set with
some elements in another set in a very unique way.

We have learnt many things like limits, continuity, differentiability, integrability etc. about real
functions in calculus. Here we mainly discuss about the general theory of functions in algebraic
viewpoint which are applicable to all types of functions, i.e. not restricted to real or real-valued
functions only, found in all branches of mathematics.

2.1: Definitions, notations and examples:

Definition 2.1.01: Let  and  two non-empty sets. Then a correspondence/association rule or a
relation f which corresponds/associates/relates each element of the set  to a unique element in
the set  is called a function or a mapping from the set  to the set  . More specifically, a
function is a relation that relates every element in a set to a unique element in another set.

Notations: If f is a mapping from  to  , then we denote this fact by f :    or by

 
f
 . Further if f relates the element a   to the element b   , then, b is called the f -
image or simply the image of a and conversely, a is called a pre-image of b . In this case we
write f (a)  b . An element in B may have no, one or more than one pre-images in A. The pre-
image(s) of b   is/are denoted by f 1 (b) and is defined by

f 1 (b)  {x   : f ( x)  b}

Definition 2.1.02: If f :    , then  and  are respectively called the domain and the co-
domain of the function f . Also the set

f ( )  { b   : b  f (a) for some a  } is called the range of f .

Definition 2.1.03: Equality of mappings: Two mappings f :    and g :    are said to

be equal to be equal, denoted as f  g , if f ( x)  g ( x), x  A . That is, to prove f  g we need
to show that:
 (i) Domain of f = Domain of g

(ii) Co-domain of f = co-domain of g

And (iii) f ( x)  g ( x), x  A

Example 2.1.04: The following functions f and g are equal:

(i) f ( x)  1, g x   sin 2 x  cos2 x

(ii) f ( x)  x 2 , g x   x 2

But the functions f ( x)  1 and g x   sec2 x  tan 2 x are not equal.

 n 
For, Domain of f  R  Domain of g  R   : n  , n is odd 
 2 

2.2: Different types of mappings:

A mapping f :    is said to be

(i) A one-one or an injective mapping or an injection if different elements in A have

different f-images in B.

Mathematically, f is one-one if

x, y  , x  y  f ( x)  f ( y )

Or equivalently, if x, y  , f ( x)  f ( y )  x  y

(ii) A many-one or many-to-one mapping if two or more than two elements in the
domain A have the same f-image in B.

(iii) An onto or a surjective mapping or a surjection if f ( )   , i.e. every element in B

has at least one pre-image in A. More precisely, f is an onto mapping if for every
y   , there is x   such that f ( x)  y .

(iv) An into mapping if f ( )   , i.e. there is at least one element in B which has no any
pre-image in A under f.

(v) A bijection or a bijective mapping or a one-to-one correspondence if f is both an

injection and a surjection i.e., both one-one and onto.
Ex.2.2.01. The mapping f : R  R defined by f ( x)  ax  b, a ( 0), b  R is a bijection.

For, (i) We have,

f ( x)  f ( y )  ax  b  ay  b
 a.( x  y )  0
 x y 0 [ a  0]
x y

Therefore, f is an injection or a one-one mapping.

(ii) Let y be an arbitrary element in the co-domain R of f. If possible, let, there be an element
x in the domain R such that y  f ( x)  ax  b . Then,

y  f ( x)  ax  b  ax  y  b
 y, b, a ( 0 )  R  y  b, a ( 0)  R 
y b
x R  y b 
a   R 
 a 
 the pre  image of y  Rco  domainis x  R (domain)

So, f is a surjection or is an onto mapping.

Ex.2.2.02 f :    s. t. f ( x)  2 x 2  1 is one-one but not onto. Further the mapping g given

by g :    s. t. g ( x)  2 x 2  1 is neither one-one nor onto.

Proof: (i) f :    s. t. f ( x)  2 x 2  1 is one-one:

We have,

f ( x)  f ( y ), x, y    2 x 2  1  2 y 2  1
 2( x 2  y 2 )  0
 ( x  y ).( x  y )  0
 x y 0 [ x, y    x  y  0]
x y

So, it follows that f :    s. t. f ( x)  2 x 2  1 is a one-one mapping.

Further,
 y 1
y  f ( x)  2 x 2  1  x 2 
2
y 1
x   for y  1, 2, 4, 6, ........
2
 y  1, 2, 4, 6, ......   have no pre  image in domain

So, f is not an onto mapping.

(ii) g :    s. t. g ( x)  2 x 2  1 is neither one-one nor onto:

Here,  1,  2,  3,  4, ......   and 1  1, 2  2, 3  3, 4  4

But f (1)  f (1), f (2)  f (2), f (3)  f (3), f (4)  f (4), ........

g :    s. t. g ( x)  2 x 2  1 is not one-one.

Again, as in (i) we can easily establish that g ( x)  2 x 2  1 is not onto.

2.3: Definition of functions as a set of ordered pairs:

A function f :    is a subset of    such that

(i) a     (a, b)  f for some b  

(ii) (a, b), (a, c)  f  b  c

Condition (i) implies that every element in A is related to some element in B while (ii)
implies that an element in A is related to a unique element in B.

Example 2.3.01: If   {a, b, c},   {x, y, z , w} , then following are some functions from A to B.

(i) f1  {(a, w), (b, y), (c, x) }

(ii) f 2  {(a, x), (b, x), (c, x) }

(iii) f 3  {(a, x), (b, y), (c, z ) }

But the following are not functions from A to B:

(a) f 4  {(a, w), (b, y), (c, x) , (a, z)}.Here a   is related to two different w, z   .

(b) f 5  {( a, w), (b, y )}. Here c   is not related to any element in  .

2.4: Some particular type of functions:

Definition 2.4.01: Transformations or operators:

A function from a set A into itself is called a transformation or an operator on the set A. i.e., if
the domain and codomain of a function are same, then it is called a transformation.

Definition 2.4.02: Identity functions:

The mapping  :    defined by ( x)  x,  x   , is called the identity function on A. The

identity mapping on A is generally denoted by   .

Definition 2.4.03: Constant functions:

A mapping f :    defined by f ( x)  c,  x   , where c is a fixed element of A, is called a

constant function from A to B.

2.5: Product or composition of mappings:

If f :    and g :   C , then their product or composition is denoted by g  f and it is

defined to be a function from A to C such that

( g  f )(x)  g  f ( x) ,  x  

We must note here that g  f is defined when and only when

Co-domain of f = Domain of g

Example 2.5.01: Let f : R  R and g : R  R , where R is the set of real numbers, such that

f ( x)  2 x  3 and g ( x)  x 2  5 , x  R

Then, ( g  f )( x)  g ( f ( x))  g (2 x  3)  (2 x  3) 2  5  4 x 2  12x  4

And ( f  g )( x)  f ( g ( x))  f ( x 2  5)  2( x 2  5)  3  2 x 2  7

Here, g  f  f  g

Remark: The above example also shows that composition of mappings is not necessarily
commutative.

Theorem: 2.5.02: The product or composition of mappings is always associative. i.e.,

h  ( g  f )  (h  g )  f
Proof: We first recall that two mappings are equal when (i) their domains and codomains are
same and (ii) the functional values of both the mappings at every point of the domain are equal.
So, keeping in mind the above criteria we prove the theorem.

Let f :    , g :   C and h : C  D .

Then, f :   , g :   C , h : C  D

 g  f :   C, h  g :   D

 h  ( g  f ) :   D, ( h  g )  f :   D

 Domains and codomainsof h  ( g  f ) and (h  g )  f are same

Further, we have,

[h  ( g  f )]( x)  h[( g  f )( x)] [ by definition of composite mappings ]

 h [ g ( f ( x))] [ by definition of composite mappings ]
 h [ g ( y )] where y  f ( x)
 (h  g )( y )
 (h  g )( f ( x))] putting y  f ( x)
 [( h  g )  f ]( x) , x  
 h  ( g  f )  (h  g )  f #

Theorem: 2.5.03: If f :    and g :   C , then

(i) If f and g are both one-to-one, then g  f is also one-to-one

(ii) If f and g are both onto, then so is g  f

Proof: (i) We have,

( g  f )( x)  ( g  f )( y ), x, y  
 g ( f ( x))  g ( f ( y )) [by definition of composition of mappings]
 f ( x)  f ( y )) [ g is one  to  one]
 x y [ f is one  to  one]

Therefore, g  f is one-to-one.

(ii)Let c  C , the co-domain of g  f , be arbitrary.

Now, g :   C is onto, c  C   b   s. t. g (b)  c

 Further, f :    is onto, b     a   s. t. f (a)  b

  a   s. t. g ( f (a))  g (b)  c

  a   s. t. ( g  f ) (a )  c

So, it follows that g  f is onto.

Theorem: 2.5.04: If f :    , then f     f and    f  f where   and   are identity

mappings on A and B respectively.

Proof: Here,

f :    ,   :   ,   :     f    :   ,    f :   

Thus, the domain and codomain of f and f    are the same.

Similarly, the domain and codomain of f and  B  f are the same.

Further, ( f    )(x)  f (  ( x))  f ( x),  x  

Therefore, from the definition of equality of mappings, we have, f     f

In a similar way we can prove that    f  f

2.6: Inverse mappings:

Inverse mappings are directly obtained from bijective mappings or one-to-one correspondences
(one-one and onto mappings). Those are also defined in terms of bijective mappings only.
1
Theorem: 2.6.01: If f :    is one-one onto, then f :    is also one-one onto. i.e., the
inverse of a bijective mapping is also bijective.
1
Proof: Let f :    is a bijective mapping and f :    be its inverse such that

f 1 (b)  a if and only if f (a)  b

1
We now need to prove that f :    is also bijective i.e. one-one and onto.

We have,
1 1 1 1
f ( x)  f ( y ), x, y    f ( x)  f ( y )  a, for some a  
 x  f (a ), y  f (a ) [by def n of inverse mapping ]
x y
So, by definition of one-one mapping it follows that f 1 :    is one-one.

Next, let, a   , the co-domain of f 1 :    , be arbitrary.

Now, f :    , a     an element b   such that f (a)  b

1
  an element b   such that f (b)  a [  f is one  one ]

Hence f 1 :    is onto.

Thus f 1 :    is also a bijective mapping whenever the mapping f :    is bijective.

Theorem: 2.6.02: The inverse of a one-one onto mapping is unique.

Proof: Let f :    be one-one and onto. Then it possesses inverse.

We have to prove that the inverse of f :    is unique. If possible, let, there be two inverses
g :    and h :    . Then,

g :   , h :    , b    g (b)  a1 ( say )  , h (b)  a 2 ( say )  ................(1)

 f (a1 )  b, f (a 2 )  b [  g , h are inverses of f ]
 f (a1 )  b  f (a 2 )
 a1  a 2 [ f is one  one ]
 g (b)  h (b) , b   [ from (1) ]
gh [ from def n
of equality of fns.]
1
 f is unique.

Theorem: 2.6.03: If f :    and g :   C be one-one and onto, then

(i) f 1  f    and f  f 1   
(ii) g  f :   C is one  one onto and ( g  f ) 1  f 1  g 1

Proof: (i) f :    is one  one and onto f 1exists and f 1

:    is 1  1 onto

 f 1  f :   , f  f 1 :   

1
Now, ( f  f )(a)  f 1 ( f (a))  f 1 (b) where f (a)  b

a [ f a   b, f is 1  1  a  f 1 (b)]
    (a) a  

1
Therefore, f  f  

Similarly, we can easily prove that f  f 1   

(iii) We have, f :   , g :   C  g  f :   C

Again, we have,

( g  f )( x)  ( g  f )( y )  g ( f ( x))  g ( f ( y ))
 f ( x)  f ( y ) [ g is 1  1]
x  y [ f is 1  1]
 g  f is one  one

Further, let be arbitrary.

Then, we have,
z  C & g :   C is onto
  y   s. t. g ( y )  z
  x   s. t. f ( x)  y where g  y   z [  f :    is onto ]
 x   s. t. g [ f ( x)]  g ( y )  z
 x   s. t. ( g  f )( x)  z
 x   is the pre  image of z  C under g  f

Therefore, g of is onto.
Also, f :   , g :   C are bijective  g  f :   C is bijective
 ( g  f ) 1 exists and ( g  f ) 1 : C  
And, f :   , g :    are bijective  f 1 :   , g 1 : C   exist
1
 f  g 1 : C  
 Domain and codomain of ( g  f ) 1 and f 1
 g 1 are same .

Further, let be arbitrary. Then,

z  C and g :   C is bijective   y   s. t. g ( y )  z and so y  g 1 ( z )
1
And, y   , f :    is bijective   x   s. t. f ( x)  y and so x  f ( y)
Therefore, ( g  f )( x)  g[ f ( x)]  g ( y )  z and hence, ( g  f ) 1 ( z )  x .
Further,

( f 1  g 1 )( z )  f 1[ g 1 ( z )]  f 1 ( y)  x
 ( g  f ) 1 ( z )  x  ( f 1
 g 1 )( z ),  z  C
So, by definition of equality of mapping it follows that ( g  f ) 1  f 1  g 1

Theorem: 2.6.04: If and be two functions such that , then f is an

injection and is a surjection.

Proof: Let and be two functions such that .

Now, we first prove that is an injection.

For we have,

( ) ( ) , ( )- , ( )- , -

( )( ) ( )( ) , -

( ) ( ) , -

, -

Thus ( ) ( ) So, f is an injective function.

Secondly, we prove that .

For this purpose, let codomain of , be an arbitrary element.

Then, ( ) ( )

, ( )- ( ) , -

( )( ) ( ), -

( ) ( ) , -

( )

Thus, for , such that ( ) Hence, the function is a surjection.

Theorem: 2.6.05: If and be two functions such that , then is an

injection and is a surjection.

Proof: Let and be two functions such that .

Now, we first prove that is a surjection.

For this purpose, let codomain of , be an arbitrary element.

Then, ( ) ( )
 , ( )- ( ) , -

( )( ) ( ), -

( ) ( ) , -

( )

Thus, for , such that ( ) Hence, the function is a surjection.

Now, we prove that is an injection.

For we have,

( ) ( ) , ( )- , ( )- , -

( )( ) ( )( ) , -

( ) ( ) , -

, -

Thus ( ) ( ) So, is an injective function.

Theorem: 2.6.06: If and be two functions, then,

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Proof: (1) Let . We need to prove that .

Let codomain of , be an arbitrary element.

Then, ( )( )

, ( )-

Again, ( ) ( )

, ( )- ( ) , -

( ) , , ( )- -

Thus, for , such that ( ) Hence, the function is onto.

(2) Let , we prove that

For we have,

( ) ( ) , ( )- , ( )- , -

( )( ) ( )( ) , -

, -

Thus ( ) ( ) So, f is an injective function.

(3) Let . We prove that .

Let codomain of , be an arbitrary element.

Then ( ) ( )

Again, ( )( )

Now, ( )( ) ( ) , ( )- ( )

( ) , -

Thus, for , such that ( ) Hence, the function is onto.

(4) Let . We prove that

For let ( ) ( ).

Here, ( ) ( )

Again, ( ) ( ) , ( )- ( ) , ( )- ( ) , -

, ( )- , ( )- , ( ) ( )-

( )( ) ( )( )

, -

( ) ( ) , -

, ( ) ( ) -

Thus ( ) ( ) So, is a one-one function.

Theorem: 2.6.07: If and * +* + be arbitrary collection of subsets of X

and Y respectively, then,
    
(a ) f        f (   ) (b) f 1       f 1 ( )
       

   
(c ) f        f (   ) (d ) f 1       f 1 ( )
       

Proof not required.