DEE271 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

LABORATORY

Laboratory Manual

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KOKRAJHAR

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 DEE271 – BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS LABORATORY \
CONTENTS

Sl. No Name of the Item/Experiment

1 Basic safety precautions.

2 Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat and
wattmeter, oscilloscope, function generator.
3 Introduction and Identification of electrical and electronics components
4 Make a measured resistance from a given rheostat
5 Verification of Kirchoff’s voltage and Current Laws
6 Verification of Superposition Theorem
7 Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem
8 Series RLC Resonance Circuits (Frequency response & Resonant frequency)

9 Obtain V-I characteristics of PN junction diode

10 Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Zener Diode

11 Half-wave and Full-wave rectifier circuit

12 Study of input and output characteristics of a NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) in
Common-emitter configuration.

3
 General Safety Precautions
Precautions (In case of Injury or Electric Shock)
1. To break the victim with live electric source, use an insulator such as fire wood or plastic to break the
contact. Do not touch the victim with bare hands to avoid the risk of electrifying yourself.
2. Unplug the risk of faulty equipment. If main circuit breaker is accessible, turn the circuit off.
3. If the victim is unconscious, start resuscitation immediately, use your hands to press the chest in and out
to continue breathing function. Use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation if necessary.
4. Immediately call medical emergency and security. Remember! Time is critical; be best.

Precautions (In case of Fire)

1. Turn the equipment off. If power switch is not immediately accessible, take plug off.
2. If fire continues, try to curb the fire, if possible, by using the fire extinguisher or by covering it with a
heavy cloth, if possible, isolate the burning equipment from the other surrounding equipment.
3. Sound the fire alarm by activating the nearest alarm switch located in the hallway.
4. Call security and emergency department immediately:
 Experiment-1:
Aim of the Experiment: Identification of basic electrical and electronics
components
Components: Resistors, capacitors, inductors, bred-boards, diode, transistors, ICs, transformers
Theory;
Resistor:
Resistor is an electronic component whose function is to limit the flow of current in an electric
circuit. It is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohm is Ω(omega).
They are available in different values, shapes and sizes. Every material has some resistance. Some
materials such as Rubber, Glass and air have very high opposition to current to flow These materials are
called insulators. Other materials such as Copper, Silver and Aluminum etc, has very low resistance, they
are called Conductors.

Resistor symbols:
Capacitor:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils
separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in
many common electrical devices. Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed
on them, some are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed above
for resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked with an “C” on a
circuit board.

Capacitor Symbol

Types of Capacitors
Inductor:
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component which
resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually
wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil. When
the current flowing through an inductor change, the time varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the
change in current that created it. Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values.
If they are color coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can
measure inductance will be needed.
They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board

Inductor Symbol:

Types of inductors:

Bread Boards:
This is the platform (or chasis) on which any circuit can be ringed up to provide inter connections between
electronics components and devices. The advantage of bread board is, the components can be connected
(or) disconnected easily. It has holes both horizontally and vertically as shown in the figure. The horizontal
holes at the top and bottom are having internal shorts where as in the remaining part vertical holes are
shorted internally.
Diode:
A Diode is an electronic component that allows electric current to flow in one direction only. It is a
semiconductor device that consists of a p-n junction. It can be either forward biased or reverse biased.
They are most commonly used to convert AC to DC, because they pass the positive (+) part of the wave,
and block the negative (–) part of the AC signal, or, if they are reversed, they pass only the negative part
and not the positive part.

Transistor:
A transistor is a semiconductor device that acts as an amplifier, a switch, or a signal modulator. It
consists of three layers – the emitter, base, and collector – each doped with different materials to create
either a positive (P-type) or negative (N-type) charge.
IC
An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip or simply chip, is a set of electronic circuits,
consisting of various electronic components (such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors) and their
interconnections.[1] These components are etched onto a small, flat piece ("chip")
of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Integrated circuits are used in a wide range of electronic
devices, including computers, smartphones, and televisions, to perform various functions such as
processing and storing information.

Transformer
A transformer is a passive device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another using
electromagnetic induction. The working principle of a transformer involves mutual induction between
coils to transfer electrical energy. Depending on the turns ratio between the primary and secondary
windings, a transformer can either step up or step down the voltage.
 Experiment-2:
Aim of the Experiment: Introduction and use of measuring instruments –
voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat and wattmeter, oscilloscope, function generator.
Apparatus: Voltmeter, Ammeter, Rheostat, Wattmeter, Oscilloscope, function generator
Theory:
Voltmeter:
Voltmeter is parallelly connected with the electric circuit in order to measure the potential.

Ammeter:
The ammeter is used for measuring a small amount of current and kept in series with the
circuit to be measured so that the entire current in the circuit is passing through it.

Voltmeter and ammeter symbol:

Rheostat
A rheostat is a type of variable resistor, whose resistance can be changed for varying the amount
of electric current flowing through an electrical circuit. Commonly available resistors have a fixed value
and are used to restrict smaller electric current values. Rheostat is used for varying higher values of
electric current.
 The above diagram shows how connections are made in a rheostat when placed in an electrical
circuit. One end of the wire from where the current enters the device is connected to the bottom-left
terminal (terminal A).
By moving the wiper/slider, the resistance can be increased or decreased. This varied current then
flows out through the top-right terminal (terminal B) further into the electrical circuit.
The wiper/slider being close to terminal A indicates low resistance whereas it increases when close to
terminal B.

Wattmeter
The primary function of a wattmeter is to measure the electrical power flowing through a circuit.
It accomplishes this by combining measurements of both voltage and electric current.

Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is a device for displaying repetitive events in terms of a voltage on the vertical
axis and time on the horizontal axis. Any response that can be converted to a time varying electric signal
can be displayed on the oscilloscope.

Signals enter the oscilloscope through the channel I and 2 inputs. The vertical preamplifiers
are accurate, wide-band amplifiers connected to a voltage divider attenuator network. The incoming
signals are routed through the input coupling switch to the preamplifier/attenuator. At this point, a
portion of the signal is diverted to the Sweep Generator by the trigger circuits. The vertical signal is
then sent on the delay line. The delay line provides a short time delay so the leading edge of the
desired signal can be viewed. From the delay circuit, the vertical signal is routed to the vertical
amplifier. The vertical amplifier provides a voltage to the plates inside the C.R.T. that direct the
electron beam vertically onto the face of the scope. The heart of the horizontal deflection circuit is
the sweep generator. The sweep generator produces a ramp wave that is synchronized to the input
channels by the trigger circuit. The time base control determines the time required for the ramp
wave to reach its maximum value, which controls the time it takes for the
C.R.T. trace to traverse the scope face. The sweep generator drives the horizontal deflection amplifiers.
These amplifiers connect to plates inside the C.R.T. that direct the electron beam horizontally
onto the face of the scope.
The high voltage power supply supplies the potential that produces the electron beam in the
C.R.T. The low voltage power supply powers all other sub-circuits in the instrument.
 S. No. Switch Functions
1. Power switch To switch on and off of the oscilloscope
2. Focus control To control the focus of the spot on the screen.
3. Intensity control To control the brightness of the spot on the screen.
4. X-offset Y-offset moves the whole trace vertically up and down on the screen,
5. Y-offset while X-offset moves the whole trace from side to side on the screen.
Whenever we switch on the time-base, we are actually applying a
sawtooth voltage to the X-plates
* This makes the electron beam sweep across the screen at a
6. Time base control constant speed.
* By knowing the period of each cycle, T, we can then know how
fast the beam is sweeping across the screen. The time-base is thus a
measure of time for the oscilloscope.
The “Volts/Div.” wheels amplify an input signal so that for a division a
given voltage level is invalid. A “division” is a segment, a square on the
7. Y gain control screen of the oscilloscope. A setting of “.5” i.e., means, that the
height of a single square equals a voltage of 0.5 V. An amplitude of 1 V
would have a size of two divisions vertical to the abscissa.
d.c. – d.c. and a.c. voltage displayed.
8. d.c./a.c. switch
a.c. – only a.c. voltage displayed.
9. X-input and Y-input Electric input connects to the X-plate and Y-plate.

Function Generator
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types of
waveforms as its output signal. The most common output waveforms are sine-waves, triangular
waves, square waves, and sawtooth waves. The frequencies of such waveforms may be adjusted from a
fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.
 Experiment-3:
Aim of Experiment: Make a measured Electrical Resistance from a given
rheostat using Ohm's Law.
Apparatus
Power supply, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Rheostat, Resistor, Multimer and Connecting wires
Theory
Ohm's Law
A devise is said to obey Ohm's law whenever the current, I through it is always directly
proportional to the potential difference applied V. The resistance R of the devise is constant.
V=RI.
R is the resistance of the material.
A material that obeys Ohm's law is called Ohmic (linear)
conductor which those that do not are called non-Ohmic (non-linear) conductor.
A rheostat is a devise whose resistance can be varied to provide different potential difference
across a resistor in circuit.
Circuit diagram:

Procedures
1. The circuit diagram is completed as shown in the figure.
2. Moving the rheostat slider position, measure the value of the resistance of the rheostat using
mustimeter.
3. Setting the voltage for a suitable value, the ammeter and voltmeter reading are noted.
4. Knowing the voltage drop across the resistor, the voltage drop across the rheostat resistance is
calculated.
5. The resistance across the rheostat is now calculated from the value of current and voltage drop.
6. The above step may be repeated setting the voltage source into different voltage inputs.

Observation

Sl no Va Voltage Voltage drop Ammeter Resistance Resistance across

applied drops (VRh) across Reading (I) across rheostat (RhM)
(VR)across rheostat (Rh) rheostat measured using
R (RhE) multimeter
Calculation:
Voltage drop (VRh) across rheostat (Rh) = Va - VR
𝑉 −𝑉
Resistance across rheostat (RhE) = 𝑎 𝐼 𝑅
Resistance across rheostat (RhM) measured using multimer = ………

Result: The experimentally measured value of resistance of rheostat and its resistance value measured
using mustimeter are nearly equal.
 Experiment-4:
Aim: To verify the Kirchoff’s laws for the given network with the theoretical
calculations.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Name of Items/Apparatus Range Quantity
1. Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0-30) V 1
2. Ammeter (MC) (0-100) mA 3
3. Voltmeter (MC) (0-10) V 220 , 330 , 3
Other items 10k ,22k ,33k
1. Resistors Each 1 no
2. Bread Board 1
3. Wires

Theory:
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
 Sum of all currents entering a node is zero.
 Sum of currents entering the node is equal to sum of currents leaving the node.

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

 Sum of voltages around any loop in a circuit is zero.

First, sum the voltages about the loop.

V= V1+V2+……+Vn = 0.
Kirchoff’s current law: Circuit diagram:
Let R1=220; R2=330
 Procedure
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The total current is calculated theoretically (Ith).
3. The current through each branch is measured practically (I1,I2) and added to get the value Ipr.
4. Verify KCL for each & every node presents in the given network.
5. Repeat the same procedure for different values of voltages.
Observation:
V(volts) Ith(mA) I1(mA) I2(mA) Ipr=I1+I2 (mA)

Theoretical calculation
RT = R1R2 10V VT/RT =220330 = 132
For V = = 75.8mA
Ith =
I1 = I * R2/(R1+R2) =45.5mA
I2 = I * R1/(R1+R2) =30.3mA
Ipr =I1+I2= 45.5+30.0 =75.8mA
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: Circuit diagram:

Let R1=10k; R2=22k; R3=33k

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The voltages V1, V2 and V3 across each resistance is measured for different values of input voltage V.
3. Add the voltages V1, V2 and V3 and denote it as VT.
4. Verify KVL for the loop present in the given network (VT=V).

Observation:
V(volts) V1(volts) V2(volts) V3(volts) VT=V1+V2+V3
Theoretical Calculation
V = V1+V2+V3
V1 = I* R1
V2 = I* R2
V3 = I* R3
where I is the current in the loop = V/(R1+R2+R3). For V =10V
I =10/((10+22+33) * 103 ) = 0.154 mA V1=0.154 * 10 = 1.54V
V2 =0.154 * 22= 3 . 3 9 V
V3 =0.154 * 33= 5.08V V1+V2+V3 =10.01V
Result:
Using Kirchoff’s Laws the node currents and branch voltages are theoretically calculated &
practically verified.
 Experiment -5:
Aim: To verify the Superposition theorem for given circuit.
Theory:
In a linear bilateral network containing more than one source, the current flowing through any
branch is the algebraic sum of the current flowing through that branch when sources are considered one at
a time and replacing the other source by their internal resistance.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No Apparatus Required Range Quantity
1Regulated Power Supply (0-30) V 1
2 Ammeter (MC) (0-10) mA 1
Other items
3 Resistors 10k 3
4 Bread Board 1
5 Wires

Circuit Diagram:
10 KΩ 10 KΩ

I
+
(0-10)mA A
10V
-
+ +
- 5V

10 KΩ

Fig 1

10 KΩ 10 KΩ

I1
+
(0-10)mA A
-
10V +
-

10 KΩ

Fig 2
 10 KΩ 10 KΩ

I2
+
(0-10)mA A
-
+
5V

10 KΩ

Fig 3

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram (Fig 1).
2. Switch on the DC power supplies (10V and 5V) and note down the corresponding ammeter reading (Ipr).
3. Replace the second power supply (5V) by short circuit.
4. Switch on the power supply (10V) and note down the corresponding ammeter reading (I1).
5. Connect the second power supply (5V) and replace the first power supply by short circuit.
6. Switch on the power supply (5V) and note down the corresponding ammeter reading (I2).
7. Verify the following condition
Ipr = I1 +I2
8. Calculate I1 , I2 theoretically using mesh equations then find Ith= I1+I2 and compare with the Practical
value Ipr.

Observation:

I1 (mA) I2 (mA) Ipr = I1+I2 (mA) Ith (mA)

Result
Superposition theorem for given circuit was verified.

8
 Experiment – 6:

Aim: To practically verify the

Thevenin’s theorem for the network
with the theoretical calculations.
Theory: Any two terminal network having a number of
voltage sources & resistances can be replaced by a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of single voltage source in
series with a resistance, where the value of voltage source is
equal to the open circuit voltage across the two terminals of
the network, and resistance is equal to the equivalent The initial circuit
resistance measured between the terminals with all energy
source replaced by their internal resistance.

Transformed Equivalent Thevenin’s circuit

Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Required Range Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30) V 1

2 Voltmeter (MC) (0-10) V 1
Other items
3 Resistors 220 Each 1 no
330 1k
4 Bread Board 1
5 Wires

Circuit diagram and Procedure:

Voltage Measurement

Let R1=220 R2=330 RL=1K

1. Connect the circuit as per above diagram
2. Measure the voltage across the load using proper voltmeter

Thevenin’s Equivalent Voltage:

1. Remove the load resistance and connect the circuit as per above Diagram.
2. Measure the voltage across the output terminal using proper voltmeter
Thevenin’s Equivalent Resistance:

3. Replace the voltage source by its internal resistance and open circuit the load.
4. Connect the circuit as per above diagram.
5. Using multimeter in resistance mode measure the resistance across the output terminal .
Thevenin’s Circuit

6. Connect the supply Vth and resistance Rth in series as shown in the Circuit.
7. Connect the load resistance.
8. Switch the supply and measure the voltage drop across the load using voltmeter.
Observation:

Parameter Theoretical value Practical value

Rth

Vth

Vload

Theoretical Calculation:
R1 =220  R 2=330 RL=1K

IT = V/(R1+(R2||RL)) = 21.3 mA
IL = IT*R2/(R2+RL) = 5.3 mA
VL = IL*RL = 5.3 V
Vth = V/(R2/(R1+R2)) = 6V
Rth = R1*R2/(R1+R2) = 132
IL = Vth /(Rth +RL) = 5.3mA
VL = IL*RL = 5.3 V
 EXERCISE 1:
Circuit Diagram and Procedure:

Let R1=10K R2=4.7K R3=10K R4=10K RL=1K

I . Voltage Measurement
1. Connect the circuit as per above diagram.
2. Measure the voltage across the load using proper voltmeter.

II. Thevenin’s Equivalent Voltage:

1. Remove the load resistance and connect the circuit as per above diagram.
2. Measure the voltage across the output terminal using proper voltmeter.
III. Thevenin’s Equivalent Resistance:
1. Replace the voltage source by its internal resistance and open circuit the load.
2. Connect the circuit as per above diagram.
3. Using multimeter in resistance mode measure the resistance across the Output terminal.

IV. Thevenin’s Circuit

1. Connect the supply Vth and resistance Rth in series as shown in the circuit.
2. Connect the load resistance.
3. Switch the supply and measure the voltage drop across the load using voltmeter.
 Experiment -7

Aim: To Study and plot the curve of Resonance for a Series resonance
circuits.
Theory:
An ac circuit is said to be in resonance when the applied voltage and the resulting current are
in phase. In an RLC circuits at resonance, Z = R & XL = Xc where XL is inductive reactance and Xc
is capacitive reactance.
The frequency at which the voltage in RLC circuit is maximum is known as resonant
frequency (fo). At fo IC and IL are equal in magnitude and opposite in phase.

Apparatus Required :

S.No Apparatus Required Range Quantity

1. Signal Generator (0-1) MHz 1

2. Ammeter (MC) (0-10) mA 1
3. Voltmeter (MC) (0-10) V 3
Other items
1. Resistors 1K , 1
2. Capacitor 1 F 1
3. Bread Board 1
4. Decade Inductance Box 1
5. Wires

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set input voltage, Vi (5 or 10 v) using signal generator and vary the frequency from (0-1)MHz in
regular steps.
3. Note down the corresponding output voltage and current.
4. Plot the graph: I ,Vc & VL Vs frequencies.
To Measure the Resonance Frequency:
1. Plot the graph: Current Vs Frequencies
2. Draw a vertical line, from the maximum current reading to the X-axis. That is the resonant
frequency f0.

Circuit Diagram:
MODEL GRAPHS :

Observation:

Frequency (KHz) Voltage (volts) Current

Vr VL Vc I(mA)
100KHz
200KHz
300KHz
.
.
.
.
1MHz

Theoretical Calculation:
fr = 1 /(2 LC) Hertz
where, fr = Resonant frequency, L = Inductance, C = Capacitance

Result :
Thus the resonance curve for series resonance is plotted and the resonant frequency is
calculated theoretically and practically.
 Experiment-8
AIM: Obtain V-I characteristics of PN junction diode

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Diode Characteristics Kit, Power Supply, Ammeter (0-20mA),

Voltmeter (0- 20V), Connecting Leads.

THEORY:
A P-N junction is known as Semiconductor diode or Crystal diode. It is the
combination of P-type & N- type Semiconductor. This offers nearly zero
resistance to current on forward biasing & nearly infinite Resistance to the
flow of current when in reverse biased. Forward biasing: When P-type
semiconductor is connected to the +ve terminal and N-type to –ve terminal
of voltage source. Nearly zero resistance is offered to the flow of current.
Reverse biasing: When P-type semiconductor is connected to the –ve
terminal and N-type to +ve terminal. Nearly zero current flow in this
condition.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Vary the value of input dc supply in steps.
4. Note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings for each step.
5. Plot the graph of Voltage Vs Current.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Forward Biased Reverse Biased

S. No.
 V I (mA) V I (A)
1.
2.
.
..
...

RESULT: VI characteristics of semiconductor rectifier diode has been

plotted.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connection should be tight.

2. Ammeter is always connected in series in the circuit while voltmeter is parallel to
the conductor.
3. The electrical current should not flow the circuit for long time,
otherwise its temperature will increase and the result will be affected.
4. Maximum reading of voltmeter should be greater than the electromotive force of
the cell.
5. It should be care that the values of the components of the circuit is does not
exceed to their ratings (maximum value).
6. Before the circuit connection it should be check out working condition of all the
components.
 Experiment:9
Aim of the Experiment: To study the forward and reverse biased
characteristics of a Zener Diode
Apparatus:

The instrument comprises of the following parts:

(a) Two Zener Diodes (b) Continuously variable, over load & short circuit protected DC regulated
power supply 0-12 v. (c) Voltmeter & Current meter are mounted on the front panel to measure the
voltage & current.

Theory:
Semi-conductor PN junction Diodes are generally used as rectifier. They are suitable for
converting AC into DC. But they suffer from the disadvantage that their maximum safe inverse
voltage is relatively small. When a reverse voltage is applied conduction stops and the PN junction
diode blocks the reverse current like any other rectifier. As the reverse voltage increases a small
current flows in the circuit. If however, the reverse potential is increase beyond a limit, the reverse
current increases sharply to a high value. At the voltage where the current increase suddenly is called
Break Down Voltage. This sudden increase in current is known as Avalanche or Zener Current. The
Zener Diode makes a virtue of it and operates at this very point.

PROCEDURE:
For Forward Bias Characteristics
1. Make all the connection as shown in fig (1a) using patchcords. Connect positive end of Power
Supply to positive of voltmeter, Negative end power supply to negative of Voltmeter. Connect other
of resistance Rs to anode(A) of Zener Diode, Connect Cathode(K) of Zener Diode to positive socket
of mA meter, connect negative socket of power supply to Negative of mA.
2. Select the current meter to 15 mA range using toggle switch.
3. Switch ON the instrument and set the voltage to 0volts.
4. Increase the voltage slowly and note down the corresponding current. Note down the observation
in Table No.(1)
5. Plot a graph between voltage and current as shown in fig.(1b).

Table No.1

Sl.No. Forward Voltage Forward Current

1
2
.
.
15
 For Reverse Bias Characteristics:
1. Make all the connection as shown in fig (1a) using patchcords. Connect positive end of Power
Supply to positive of voltmeter, Negative end power supply to negative of Voltmeter. Connect other
of resistance Rs to anode(A) of Zener Diode, Connect Cathode(K) of Zener Diode to positive socket
of mA meter, connect negative socket of power supply to Negative of mA.
2. Initially keep the current meter on 1.5 mA range, Voltage selection knob on extreme left & switch
ON the instrument.
3. Increase the voltage slowly & note down the corresponding current. As soon as the current
increases beyond the current meter to 15 mA range using toggle switch. Note down
the observation in Table No.(2).
4. Keep on increasing the voltage till current is rising uniformly. At a particular voltage (the voltage
rating of Zener Diode) current rises abruptly. This is called Zener Breakdown voltage of PN junction
Diode.
5. Plot a graph between V & I for reverse characteristics as shown in fig.(2b) Table No.2

Table No.2
Sl.No. Reverse Voltage Reverse Current
1
2
.
.
15

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode:

 Experiment-10:
Aim of the Experiment: To study the Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit without
and with Filter and calculate ripple factor
Circuit components/Equipments:
(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) A junction diode, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv) 3 Electrolytic Capacitors,
(v) Multimeters, (vi) Connecting wires.

THEORY:
The conversion of A.C.into DC is called rectification. The rectified output may be considered
as the DC component with AC component super imposed on it. The AC component is called Ripple.
The training consist of centre tapped transformer along with inductance, resistances and
capacitances(to be used in filter circuits.)

PROCEDURE:
a) The circuit connection are made as shown in fig. The power is switched on.
b) Voltage across the load resistance is measured using multimeter in the DC range. A 0.1 mFD
capacitor is connected in series with the multimeter in AC 10 volts range and AC voltage across
load is measured. This gives the AC component in the output. Hence the Ripple factor is
calculated.
c) The entire procedure is repeated for different load resistances.(Load can be varied with the help
of potentiometer provided on board) and each case the Ripple factor is calculated.
d) The whole procedure is repeated with different filters using inductance and capacitances.
e) Voltage regulation can also be calculated with the help of formula given above.
OBSERVATIONS:

1. Code number of diode =

2. Input Voltage: Vac= Volt

Table(I): Half wave rectifier w/o filter

Sl No. Load Input Current Output Voltage Ripple

R (kΩ) Iac(mA) Factor r
Vac Vdc = 𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑐
(Volt) (Volt)
1
2
3

Table (II): Half wave rectifier with filter (C = μF)

Sl. No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor r

R (kΩ) = 𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Vac(Volt) Vdc(Volt)
1
2
3

Discussions:

Precautions:
 Experiment:11
Aim of the Experiment: To study the Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit without
and with Filter and calculate ripple factor.
Circuit components/Equipment:
(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) A junction diode, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv) 3 Electrolytic Capacitors,
(v) Multimeters, (vi) Connecting wires.

THEORY:
The conversion of A.C.into DC is called rectification. The rectified output may be considered as
the DC component with AC component super imposed on it. The AC component is called Ripple.
The training consist of centre tapped transformer along with inductance, resistances and
capacitances(to be used in filter circuits.)

PROCEDURE:
a) The circuit connection are made as shown in fig. The power is switched on.
b) Voltage across the load resistance is measured using multimeter in the DC range. A 0.1 mFD
capacitor is connected in series with the multimeter in AC 10 volts range and AC voltage across
load is measured.This gives the AC component in the output. Hence the Ripple factor is
calculated.
c) The entire procedure is repeated for different load resistances.(Load can be varied with the help
of potentiometer provided on board) and each case the Ripple factor is calculated.
d) The whole procedure is repeated with different filters using inductance and capacitances.
e) Voltage regulation can also be calculated with the help of formula given above.

Fig(2):

FUL-WAVE RECTIFIERCIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH FILTER

 OBSERVATIONS:

3. Code number of diode =

4. Input Voltage: Vac = Volt

Table(I): Half wave rectifier w/o filter

Sl No. Load Input Current Output Voltage Ripple

R (kΩ) Iac(mA) Factor r
Vac Vdc
(Volt) (Volt)
1
2
3

Table(II): Half wave rectifier with filter (C = μF)

Sl. No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor r

R (kΩ)
Vac(Volt) Vdc(Volt)
1
2
3

Discussions:

Precautions:
 Experiment 12:
AIM: To study input and output characteristics of a NPN Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT) in Common-emitter configuration.

APPARATUS: BJT (BC-547B), Bread board, resistor (1KΩ, 100KΩ), connecting wires, Ammeters (0‐
10mA, 0‐100μ A), DC power supply (0‐30V) and multimeter.
THEORY:
The transistor is a two junction, three terminal semiconductor device which has three regions
namely the emitter region, the base region, and the collector region. There are two types of transistors. An
npn transistor has an n type emitter, a p type base and an n type collector while a pnp transistor has a p
type emitter, an n type base and a p type collector. The emitter is heavily doped, base region is thin and
lightly doped and collector is moderately doped and is the largest. The current conduction in transistors
takes place due to both charge carriers- that is electrons and holes and hence they are named Bipolar
Junction Transistors (BJT).

BJTs are extensively used in all types of electronic circuits. The aim of this part of the experiment
is to familiarize you with the basic modes of operation and features of a BJT. The BJT that you will be
using in this experiment is BC 547 (the pin diagram is shown in Fig.1), which has a typical current rating
of 100 mA (maximum).
Two of the most important applications for the transistor are (1) as an amplifier in analog electronic systems,
and (2) as a switch in digital systems.

Basic Concepts The operation of the BJT is based on the principles of the pn junction. In the npn
BJT, electrons are injected from the forward-biased emitter into the thin base region where, as minority
carriers, they diffuse toward the reverse-biased collector. Some of these electrons recombine with holes in
the base region, thus producing a small base current, IB. The remaining electrons reach the collector
where they provide the main source of carriers for the collector current, IC. Thus, if there are no electrons
injected from the emitter, there will be (almost) no collector current and, therefore, the emitter current
controls the collector current. Combining currents, the total emitter current is given as IE = IB + IC. For
normal pnp operation, the polarity of both voltage sources must be reversed.
 BJTs are used to amplify current, using a small base current to control a large current between the
collector and the emitter. This amplification is so important that one of the most noted parameters of gain,
β (or hFE), which is the ratio of collector current to base current.

When the BJT is used with the base and emitter terminals as the input and the collector and
emitter terminals as the output, the current gain as well as the voltage gain is large. It is for this reason that
this common-emitter (CE) configuration is the most useful connection for the BJT in electronic systems.
characteristics curves:

The most important characteristics of transistor in any configuration are input and output
characteristics.

A. Input Characteristics: ‐
It is the curve between input current IB and input voltage VBE constant collector emitter voltage VCE.
The input characteristic resembles a forward biased diode curve. After cut in voltage the IB increases
rapidly with small increase in VBE. It means that dynamic input resistance is small in CE configuration. It
is the ratio of change in VBE to the resulting change in base current at constant collector emitter voltage.
It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB

B. Output Characteristics: ‐
This characteristic shows relation between collector current IC and collector voltage for various values of
base current. The change in collector emitter voltage causes small change in the collector current for the
constant base current, which defines the dynamic resistance and is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at constant IB.
The output characteristic of common emitter configuration consists of three regions: Active, Saturation
and Cut‐off.
Active region: In this region base‐emitter junction is forward biased and base‐collector junction is
reversed biased. The curves are approximately horizontal in this region.

Saturation region: In this region both the junctions are forward biased.

Cut‐off: In this region, both the junctions are reverse biased. When the base current is made equal to zero,
the collector current is reverse leakage current ICEO. The region below IB = 0 is the called the cutoff
region.
OBSERVATION:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
VBB VCE=2V VCE=3V

VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA)

0.1
0.2
.
1
1.5
.
5

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
VCC IB =10(µA) IB =20(µA)

VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA)

0
0.2
.
.
1
1.5
.
.
5
6
.
15
 PROCEDURE:
A. Input Characteristics
1) Make the circuit connection as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) Set the voltage VCE = 2 V and vary IB with the help of VBB and measure VBE.
3) Set the voltage VCE = 3 V and vary IB with the help of VBB and measure VBE.
4) Plot graph of IB v/s VBE.
5) Evaluate dynamic input resistance which is the ratio of change in VBE to the resulting change
in base current at constant collector emitter voltage. It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB
6) The reciprocal of the slope of the linear part of the characteristic gives the dynamic input
resistance of the transistor.

B. Output Characteristics
1) Keep IB constant say 10 μA, vary VCE and note down the collector current IC.
2) Now keep IB = 20 μA, vary VCE and note down the collector current IC.
3) Plot graph of IB v/s VCE.
4) The change in collector emitter voltage causes small change in the collector current for the
constant base current, which defines the dynamic output resistance and is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at
constant IB or the output conductance is given ∆IC/∆VCE with the IB at a constant current.
5) Find output conductance from the slope of the linear portion of the characteristic curves and
also find small-signal current gain which is calculated by β = ∆IC/∆IB with the VCE at a constant
voltage.

CALCULATION:
1. Small-Signal Current Gain: β = ∆IC/∆IB with the VCE at a constant voltage.
2. Dynamic input resistance: It is given by ΔVBE / ΔIB at constant VCE
3. Dynamic output resistance: It is given as ΔVCE / ΔIC at constant IB

RESULTS:
6. Small-Signal Current Gain:
7. Dynamic input resistance:
8. Dynamic output resistance:

CONCLUSION: