GENERAL

Protoctista consists of organisms that do not seem to fit anywhere else and so they are all
placed in the same kingdom. At present, inclusion in the Kingdom Protoctista is a matter of
convenience rather than representing distinct evolutionary lines. Protoctists are some of the
earliest living things on Earth.
 However, protoctists can be grouped into three basic categories based on
morphological and life cycle traits: the protozoan, algae, and fungus-like protoctists.
 They are simple eukaryotes that are neither fungi, plants, nor animals but give rise to
them.
 They are so diverse that some argue they should be split into additional kingdoms.
 Most are small, single-celled organisms that are not necessarily related to one another.
 Protoctists are eukaryotes that lack the specialized features of fungi, plants, and
animals, although they do have membrane-bound organelles.
 The diversity of protoctists is so great that they posses few characteristics in common.
 They represent the present group to evolve intracellular structures such as the true
nucleus, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast, and mitochondrion.
Moreover, ancient members of this group gave rise to the plants, animals, and fungi.
 Other characteristics common to the protoctists are: almost all are found aquatic or
semi-aquatic environments, most require aerobic conditions.
 Most possess flagella or cilia at some point in their life history,
 Many are capable of producing cysts at some point in their life cycle that are resistant
to drought of freezing.
 Protoctists possess eukaryotic cells with well-defined nuclei and organelles
 Most are unicellular, however there are multi-cellular forms
 They are diverse in their structure
 They vary in size from microscope algae to kelp that can be over 100feet in length
 They are diverse (like bacteria) in the way they meet their nutritional needs
 Some are photosynthetic like land plants -are autotrophic
 Some ingest their food like animals -heterotrophic by ingestion
 Some absorb their food like bacteria and fungi -heterotrophic by absorption
 One species -Euglena -is mixotrophic meaning that it is capable of both autotrophic
and heterotrophic life styles.
 Reproduction in Protoctists
o is usually asexual by mitosis
o sexual reproduction involves meiosis and spore formation and usually occurs
only when environmental conditions are hostile
o spores are resistant and can withstand adverse conditions
  Photosynthetic protists (mostly algae) are part of plankton. Plankton are those
organisms suspended in fresh and marine waters that serve as food for heterotrophic
animals and other protists
unicellular eukaryotes (some multinucleate, a few loosely multicellular), not all have
mitochondria (microspores, many flagellates).
2. up to about 400 micrometers in size (some larger)
3. all have at least one nucleus
4. most are free living, but many parasitic forms including entire phyla
5. motile by a variety of mechanisms but also several non-motile taxa
6. Many have cyst stages secreted by trophic or spore stages
Cysts/spores have four basic functions:
• protect against unfavorable conditions
• serve as sites for multiplication
• assist in attachment to surfaces such as hosts
• transmission stage from host to host
7. all types of nutrition are exhibited by the Kingdom.
• autotrophs: photosynthesis
• heterotrophs (holozoic vs. saprozoic)
• phagocytosis: ingestion of solid particles (e.g., bacteria)
• pinocytosis: same as phagocytosis but intake of liquid
 • saprozoic or saprotrophy: diffusion or active transport across membra
SUB-KINGDOM ALGAE; PLANT-LIKE PROTOCTISTS
Of all protoctistians, green algae are the most similar to plants in terms of biochemistry and
structure. Some evolutionists believe green algae were the group from which plants evolved.
There are over 7,000 known species. They are of varied shapes; cells are attached in long
filaments,
possesses a cell wall and dividing cell wall between cells of a filament c) Chloroplasts are
spiral shaped d) Possesses pyrenoids that are intracellular particles associated with
chloroplasts, around which starch forms.
 Like plants, green algae 1) Possess chlorophylls a and b 2) Possess cell walls composed of
cellulose, pectins, and other polysaccharides
 Store carbohydrates as starch in their chloroplasts
 Mostly non-motile; photosynthetic
 Larger, multi-cellular algae are usually called seaweeds
 Although there are red, brown and green algae, only the green algae have chlorophyll and
cellulose and store food in the form of starch. This suggests that they are the ancestors of
all land plants.
 Massive blooms of a certain plant-like protoctists causes “red tides.” The Protoctists
produce a toxin that becomes concentrated in filter-feeding shellfish and can be paralysis
and death in humans who eat them.
 The red alga Porphyra is the one used to wrap sushi and a carbohydrate (carrageenan)
from some algae is used to make ice cream, pudding and many other products.
Characteristics
 Algae are chlorophyll bearing organisms with undifferentiated tissue that never forms true
roots, true stems, or true leaves
 The algal body is called a thallus
 (c) Whiskers function as sensory structures.  Algae are mainly aquatic, but some may be found growing on soil, rocks, or other damp,
(d) It may serve as defensive weapons as in porcupines. shaded surfaces
(2) All female mammals have mammary glands.  Algae colors vary from green, blue-green, yellow-green to red, yellow, and brown
(a) They produce milk for the young. Young are born  Their shapes may be in the form of sheets, filaments, balls, or ribbons
relatively helpless but are fed milk and cared for by one or both parents. Most young are  Many are microscopic in size while others may grow over 100feet like the giant kelps of
born live. the Pacific Ocean
(b) Milk is 95% water but is rich in fat, sugar, protein.  Algae are at the very foundation of the food chain and are directly responsible for about
(3) Mammals walk more efficiently than reptiles because their legs 80% of the earth's oxygen.
are positioned further under their body.
(4) Almost all large land vertebrates are mammals, although the PHYLUM CHLOROPHYTA
typical mammal is not large - 3200 of 4100 species are rodents, bats, shrews, or moles.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
ii. Digestion
(1) Mammals have a diversity of teeth for different kinds of foods. Spirogyra -an example of a green algae and 1) Spirogyra is sometimes called pond scum 2) It
Fish, amphibians, and reptiles have teeth that are all similar. is the green, slimy growth of most/arm ponds and slow moving streams 3) Structure. They
iii. Circulation and gas exchange have photosynthetic pigment; chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and β-carotene,
(1) Mammals have a four chambered heart (See “Evolutionary
trends in the vertebrates” above).
(2) More efficient breathing results from the diaphragm muscle.
iv. Nervous system
(1) Mammals have well-developed sense organs and a large brain
with a large cerebrum.
v. Reproduction
(1) Monotremes (one hole) are egg-laying mammals which
include the duck-billed platypus and spiny anteater. Unlike other mammals, monotremes lay
eggs which the female incubates. Milk is secreted to the surface of the skin so they lack
nipples.
(2) Marsupials (marsupium, L - pouch) are pouched-mammals
which includes opossums, kangaroos, and koalas in addition to some mouse and wolf
relatives in Australia. Marsupial young begin development in the female’s body. They are
born very immature (in as few as eight days after fertilization) and crawl into the mother’s
pouch. There they attach to nipples and continue to develop.
(3) Placental mammals give birth to well-developed young.
Nutrients, water, and oxygen pass from mother to fetus while wastes pass from fetus to
mother. This exchange is possible because the blood of the fetus and of the mother are in
close contact in the placenta. Placental mammals are born relatively mature because the well- e) Nucleus is well defined
developed placenta enables them to remain within the mother for an extended period of f) Cytoplasm may occur in strands
development. 4) Sexual Reproduction
(4) The length of young care is related to the complexity of a) Mitosis
behaviour in adults. b) Fragmentation of a filament
5) Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction is by a process called conjugation
 The cylindrical cells of the filament are haploid (n)
 At the beginning of conjugation 2filaments will align cell to cell
  Outgrowths of cells appear and eventually form conjugation tubes between adjacent (b) The bony or cartilaginous tail has been replaced by
cells of 2 filaments feathers.
 The protoplasm (gamete) of one cell will move through the conjugation tube into an (c) The skeleton is made of hollow bones to reduce weight.
adjoining cell and merge with the protoplasm (gamete) of the adjoining cell (d) The breastbone is enlarged for attachment of strong
 This fusion of 2 haploid protoplasms (gametes) forms a zygote that is diploid (2n) flight muscles.
 Original filaments dry up and break up and the zygote sinks to the bottom of stream or (e) Females have only one ovary.
pond (f) Birds have no teeth.
 Zygote becomes a zygospore by forming a protective outer wall and may overwinter (g) Birds have efficient breathing that allows a one-way
on stream bottom flow of air through their lungs. As a result, the lungs receive fresh air during inhalation and
 The following spring the zygospore undergoes meiosis to form a new haploid (n) again during exhalation. During inhalation, the air sacs fill; during exhalation, they empty.
filament Air passes through the lungs in only one direction but does so during inhalation and
exhalation both.
 Sexual reproduction where gametes are alike is called isogamy.
ii. Digestion
 The life cycle of Spirogyra can be represented by the following simple diagram
(1) Birds eat small amounts of food often and digestion is very fast
to minimize the weight during flight. Birds must consume enough food to provide the energy
Chlamydomonas is a typical unicellular form biflagellated light sensitive eye-spot zygotic
needed for endothermy and flight.
meiosis with zygospore resting stage Chlamydomonas. A very big genus of round, oval or
iii. Circulation and gas exchange
cylindrical cells which swim with two flagella of equal length.
(1) Birds and mammals have a double circulatory system with 2
T, "." rr"/ J. 1"/ rot ba a D. .a-o:cj. bLt a rpd pya 5polsuallyp resent The wall is smooth and
atria and 2 ventricles. The double circulatory system is required for the high activity levels
ihin Cells can be from 2 5 to 50sm or more in length, mostly b 20 (without including the
seen in birds and mammals as well as being an endotherm.
flagella as in all measurements t his booklet O. FoLrnidn every kind of aquatic habitat species
(2) Birds have a four chambered heart (See “Evolutionary trends in
of this genus are the most likely green swimming cells to be encountered
the vertebrates” above).
iv. Nervous system
(1) Highly developed with excellent vision. This is required for
flight.
(2) Smell and taste are not as good although hearing is excellent.
(3) The well-developed cerebrum allows for complex behaviour
and learning. The cerebellum is also well-developed to allow the complex muscle
movements required for flight.
v. Reproduction
(1) Birds have internal fertilization and produce hard-shelled,
amniotic eggs.
(2) Birds exhibit complex behavior including parental care. (scrub
Chlamydomonas hens in Malaysia and Australia build a nest 15' high and 40' in diameter out of vegetation,
 Cell wall: a tough ‘shell’ enclosing the cell, made of proteins and carbohydrates. sand, and earth; bower bird)
 Chloroplast: cup-shaped, contains the green pigment chlorophyll which traps energy from j. Class Mammalia - mammals
sunlight. i. General
 Contractile vacuoles: Chlamydomonas has one pair of contractile vacuoles, hollow balls (1) All mammals have hair. Made of keratin, hair comes in many
that rhythmically fill with excess water and then contract as they pump the excess water forms and has many functions.
from the cell. (a) It insulates the body against heat loss. Being
 Eyespot (stigma): part of the light-sensor (‘eye’) that allows the cell to detect where light endothermic allows activity at any time of day or night in many climates.
is coming from so that it can stay in sunlight for photosynthesis to occur. (i) Note that marine mammals have blubber in
addition to or instead of hair. The lack of hair minimizes drag in the water.
(b) It provides camouflage.
 (1) Limbs are directed downward, bent more under the body to  Flagellum (plural flagella): one pair of flagella - whip-like appendages, the cell’s engines,
raise it up off the ground. This improved support enables reptiles to move more easily and that wave about enabling the cell to swim by pulling it through the water.
even to run.  Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria): power house of the cell - uses oxygen to burn
(2) The lungs and heart are more efficient. sugars as fuel.
(3) The skin is waterproof and made from the protein keratin - the  Nucleus: the command-and-control centre of the cell; stores information as DNA.
same protein in human hair and fingernails and in bird feathers.  Pyrenoid: part of the chloroplast that uses energy trapped from sunlight by chlorophyll to
(4) Fertilization is internal and the amniotic egg is encased in a synthesize starch from carbon dioxide.
water-tight, leathery shell covering.  Starch grains: a carbohydrate fuel reserve, some off the starch is broken down into glucose
(5) Reptiles are ectotherms (get their heat from outside their as burnt inside the mitochondrion to provide the cell with energy. Some is converted into
body) and regulate body temperature by behavior (e.g., basking in the sun or hiding in other building materials, such as oils, other carbohydrates, proteins and DNA.
shade).  Vacuoles: fluid-filled balls that store materials.
ii. Circulation
(1) Partially separated ventricle (See “Evolutionary trends in the DIVISION PHAEOPHYTA
vertebrates” above).
There are about 1,500 species of brown algae and nearly all are found in cool or temperate sea
(2) Reptiles have more efficient lungs than amphibians. Reptiles
water. They are commonly called brown sea-weed; masses of floating brown algae called
do not need to use their skin for gas exchange because the lungs are sufficient. They have a
Sargassum are the basis of the great floating ecosystem called the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic
thick, scaly skin with keratin that makes it impermeable to water and gases.
Ocean.
iii. Nervous system
1. Brown algae range from microscopic species to giants that form underwater forests in
(1) Most have a good sense of smell but poor eyesight.
the sea,
(2) Most do not have hearing as we think of it. They have
2. Phaeophytes are nearly all multicellular marine organisms,
membranes on the sides of the head to detect vibrations.
3. The photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, b and β-carotene,
iv. Reproduction
4. The food reserves are laminarin,
(1) Internal fertilization is necessary because reproduction occurs
5. The body form is thallus,
on land. The sperm must be deposited inside the female. Internal fertilization allows animals
6. They have cell walls composed of cellulose and alginic acid (a substance similar to
to mate without having to be in water.
pectin). The cellulose and alginic acid help to retain water and prevent seawood from
(2) The eggs are encased in leathery shells to protect them from
drying out when exposed to air at low tide.
drying out. This eliminates the need for a swimming larval stage.
7. Since phaeophytes live in a tidal environment, they have large, flat fronds which can
(3) The eggs are encased in leathery shells to prevent drying out.
withstand pounding by waves. Their bases strongly anchor the algae to the rocky
(a) The amniotic egg has several membranes which make it
seabed and prevent them from being washed out to sea.
a valuable adaptation for a terrestrial lifestyle. The egg has structures to surround and protect
8. Phaeophytes are usually found in areas of cold water.
the embryo, provide food, store wastes, and allow oxygen to enter, but retain water.
9. In the Far East, people harvest kelp as a source for food and mineral salts, and as a
(4) Most reptiles do not care for their young.
fertilizer for crops e.g. Laminaria, Fucus, Sargassum
i. Class Aves - birds
i. General
(1) Scales on their legs and feet and claws on their toes are
reptilian characteristics. These are made of keratin.
(2) The beak and feet are adapted to suit the bird’s lifestyle.
(3) Their success is derived from the development of the feather
which allows them to fly. Feathers contain the same protein as reptilian skin. They insulate
against heat loss and allow birds to be endotherms, meaning they regulate their body
temperature, allowing them to be active when the environmental temperature is low. Two visible features set the Phaeophyceae apart from all other algae.
(4) Anatomical features related to flight 1. Members of the group possess a characteristic color that ranges from an olive green to
(a) Forelimbs have developed into wings and feathers various shades of brown. The particular shade depends upon the amount of
provide lift. fucoxanthin present in the alga.
 2. All brown algae are multicellular. There are no known species that exist as single cells 4. The body is covered with a layer of mucous to facilitate gliding through the water
or as colonies of cells, and the brown algae are the only major group of seaweeds that and to protect from parasites.
does not include such forms. However, this may be the result of classification rather ii. Circulation
than a consequence of evolution, as all the groups hypothesized to be the closest 1. Gills extract dissolved oxygen from the water around them. Water is brought in
relatives of the browns include single-celled or colonial forms. through the mouth and passes over filaments rich in blood vessels which provide a
Whatever their form, the body of all brown algae is termed a thallus, indicating that it lacks huge surface area. Water is then forced out slits in the side of the throat.
the complex xylem and phloem of vascular plants. This does not mean that brown algae 2. Two chambered heart (See “Evolutionary trends in the vertebrates” above).
completely lack specialized structures. But, because some botanists define "true" stems, iii. Nervous system
leaves, and roots by the presence of these tissues, their absence in the brown algae means that (1) The lateral line is present.
the stem-like and leaf-like structures found in some groups of brown algae must be described (2) The nervous system is quite developed to allow for some
using different terminology. Although not all brown algae are structurally complex, those that complex behaviors and movement.
are typically possess one or more characteristic parts. (3) Although their vision is not great, they have quite a good sense
A holdfast is a root-like structure present at the base of the alga. Like a root system in plants, of smell.
a holdfast serves to anchor the alga in place on the substrate where it grows, and thus prevents iv. Reproduction
the alga from being carried away by the current. Unlike a root system, the holdfast generally (1) Separate sexes with mostly external fertilization.
does not serve as the primary organ for water uptake, nor does it take in nutrients from the
substrate. The overall physical appearance of the holdfast differs among various brown algae g. Class Amphibia - frogs, toads and salamanders
and among various substrates. It may be heavily branched, or it may be cup-like in i. Amphibians were the first to invade the land. They are the first
appearance. A single alga typically has just one holdfast, although some species have more tetrapods. The juvenile phase of the life cycle is dependent on water and gas exchange is
than one stipe growing from their holdfast. through gills. The adult phase is less dependent on water and gas exchange is through lungs.
A stipe is a stalk or stem-like structure present in an alga. It may grow as a short structure ii. Adaptations to live on land
near the base of the alga (as in Laminaria), or it may develop into a large, complex structure (1) Legs for movement and to support body weight.
running throughout the algal body. In the most structurally differentiated brown algae (such as (2) Lungs replaced gills because the thin filaments of the gills
Fucus), the tissues within the stipe are divided into three distinct layers or regions. These would clump together out of water.
regions include central pith, a surrounding cortex, and an outer epidermis, each of which has (3) Improved heart to deliver more oxygen to walking muscles.
an analog in the stem of a vascular plant. In some brown algae, the pith region includes a core (4) Eggs are laid in water to prevent them drying out.
of elongated cells that resemble the phloem of vascular plants both in structure and function. (5) Most species live close to water to prevent the skin from drying
In others (such as Nereocystis), the center of the stipe is hollow and filled with gas that serves out.
to keep that part of the alga buoyant. The stipe may be relatively flexible and elastic in species iii. Circulation and gas exchange
like Macrocystis pyrifera that grow in strong currents, or may be more rigid in species like (1) Amphibians have a three-chambered heart (See “Evolutionary
Postelsia palmaeformis that are exposed to the atmosphere at low tide. trends in the vertebrates” above).
(2) Amphibians have small, inefficient lungs and most species also
DIVISION RHODOPHYTA get some oxygen by diffusion through the skin. Because the skin is used in gas exchange it
The red algae are characterized by a distinctive red color, they are often called the most must remain moist, so amphibians cannot venture far into very dry habitats.
beautiful of the algae, there are 4,100 species and most all are marine, most are branched and iv. Reproduction
feathery in body form and are seldom over 2 or 3 feet long. (1) External fertilization requires that sperm swim through water to
1. Most common coastal seaweeds - mostly multicellular, common in warm waters, the egg so the animals must stay in or near water for reproduction.
2. Chloroplasts have Chlorophyll a, biliproteins, phycobilins, α & β-Carotene, (2) The eggs do not have an outer covering or shell and therefore
3. Like cyanobacteria, they absorb green, violet and blue light are not protected against drying out.
4. The cell wall is made up of agar, food reserves are glycans, h. Class Reptilia (repare - to creep) - turtles, crocodiles, alligators, lizards, and
5. Extracts from red algae are used as a moisture preserving agent in baked goods snakes.
and cosmetics i. Adaptations to a fully terrestrial lifestyle
6. A setting agent in jellies
7. Soft capsules for drugs and vitamins
 (a) Birds and mammals (also crocodilians) have a four- 8. A stabilizer in paints and dairy products e.g., Batrachospermum, Rhodymenia,
chambered heart which acts as two separate pumps. After passing through the body, blood Polysiphonia
is pumped under high pressure to the lungs. Upon returning from the lungs, it is pumped
under high pressure to the body. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE
(b) The high rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the 1. One species of red algae is used as nori in sushi bars as wrapping for rice and fish.
body enables birds and mammals to maintain high activity levels. Also, the mixing of 2. Some make sulfated polysaccharides like agar and carrageenan
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood is prevented. 3. Agar used as laboratory medium, a base for cosmetics, used in baked goods and as a
(c) The increased efficiency of the four-chambered heart temporary preservative for meat and fish
permitted birds and mammals to become endotherms. The oxygen demand of providing the 4. Carrageenan used in paints, cosmetics and ice cream
energy necessary to maintain a relatively high body temperature could not be met by an open Economic Importance of Algae
circulatory system. Recent estimates show that nearly half the world’s productivity that is carbon fixation comes
iii. Increased size and complexity of the cerebrum (for learning and from the oceans. This is contributed by the algae, the only vegetation in the sea. Algae are
complex behaviour). vital as primary producers being at the start of most of aquatic food chains.
iv. Change from a cartilaginous to a bony skeleton. Algae as Food: Algae are important as a source of food for human beings, domestic animals
d. Class Agnatha - Lamprey eels. and fishes. Species of Porphyra are eaten in Japan, England and USA. Ulva, Laminaria,
i. Have a minimal skeleton made of cartilage but lack jaws and paired Sargassum and Chlorella are also used as food in several countries. Sea weeds (Laminaria,
fins. Fucus, Ascophyllum) are used as fodder for domestic animals.
ii. These animals take water in and out through the gills. Algae in Agriculture: Various blue green algae such as Oscillatoria,
Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira increase the soil fertility by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen. In
e. Class Chondrichthyes - Sharks and rays view of the increasing energy demands and rising costs of chemically making nitrogenous
i. General fertilizers, much attention is now being given to nitrogen fixing bacteria and blue green algae.
(1) They have a superior, streamlined design for swimming. Many species of sea weeds are used as fertilizers in China and Japan.
Immoveable, paired fins increase propulsion, stabilization and directional movement. Algae in Industry
(2) The skeleton is made of cartilage. a. Agar – agar: This substance is used as a culture medium while growing bacteria and fungi
ii. Digestion in the laboratory. It is also used in the preparations of some medicines and cosmetics. It is
(1) Development of the moveable jaw allowed these animals to eat obtained from the red algae Gelidium and Gracillaria.
larger prey and become top predators. Teeth are sharp and pointed backward. b. A phycocolloid Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae. Algin is used as emulsifier in
iii. Nervous system ice creams, tooth pastes and cosmetics.
(1) Very keen sense of smell. (can detect a drop of blood in 100 L c. Idodine: It is obtained from kelps (brown algae) especially from species of Laminaria.
of sea water) d. Diatomite: It is a rock-like deposit formed on the siliceous walls of diatoms (algae of
(2) The lateral line - a series of small pits along the animal’s body Chrysophyceae). When they die, they form sediment, so that on the seabed and lake bottom,
- allow the animals to detect vibrations in the water. The sound receptors of terrestrial extensive deposits can be built up over long periods of time. The resulting ‘diatomaceous
vertebrates may have evolved from these organs. earth’ has a high proportion of silica. Diatomite is used as a fire proof material and also as an
iv. Reproduction absorbent. It is used in sound and fire proof rooms. It is also used in packing of corrosive
(1) Fertilization is internal which is advanced for a fish. Eggs materials and also in the manufacture of dynamite.
generally develop inside the female’s body, and young are born alive. Algae in space travel: Chlorella pyrenoidosa is used in space travel to get rid of CO2 and
f. Class Osteichthyes - bony fishes other body wastes. The algae multiply rapidly and utilize the CO2 and liberate 02 during
i. General photosynthesis. It decomposes human urine and faeces to get N2 for protein synthesis.
1. The bony fishes developed a heavy skeleton made completely of bone. A backbone Single cell protein (SCP): Chlorella and Spirulina which are unicellular algae are rich in
surrounds the spinal cord and the brain is fully encased in a protective skull. protein and they are used as protein source. Besides, Chlorella is a source of vitamin also.
2. Their swim bladder is a gas-filled sac that allows the animal to float at any depth in The rich protein and amino acid content of chlorella and Spirullina make them ideal for
the water (sharks must move through the water to avoid sinking). single cell protein production. An antibiotic Chlorellin is extracted from Chlorella.
3. Highly mobile, paired fins are more maneuverable. Sewage Disposal: Algae like Chlorella are grown in large shallow tanks, containing sewage.
These algae produce abundant oxygen by rapid photosynthesis.
Microorganisms like aerobic bacteria use this oxygen and decompose the organic matter and (4) Post-anal tail
thus the sewage gets purified. b. Subphylum Vertebrata
Harmful effects of Algae i. Vertebrates possess a backbone. The notochord becomes surrounded
Under certain conditions algae produce ‘blooms’, that is dense masses of material. This is and replaced by a bony vertebral column which protects the dorsal nerve cord. The vertebral
especially true in relatively warm conditions when there is high nutrient availability, which column allows the body to flex and provides attachment sites for muscles as well as
sometimes is induced by man as and when sewage is added to water or inorganic fertilizers surrounding and protecting the nerve cord.
run off from agricultural land into rivers and lakes. As a result of this a sudden and explosive ii. The endoskeleton is made of bone which is much stronger than chitin.
growth of these primary producers (algae) occurs. They are produced in such a huge quantity (1) All vertebrates have a similar skeletal plan.
that they die before being eaten. The process of decomposition is carried out by aerobic (2) Fused bones form a skull to protect the brain.
bacteria which in turn multiply rapidly and deplete the water of oxygen. The lack of oxygen (3) Vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
leads to the death of fish and other animals and plants in the lakes. The increase of nutrients (4) Ribs extend from some vertebrae to protect internal organs.
which starts off the entire process is called eutrophication and if rapid it constitutes a major (5) Most vertebrates have two pairs of limbs.
problem of pollution. The toxins produced by algal bloom can also lead to mortality. This can iii. There is a specialized outer covering of the body made of either skin,
be a serious problem in lakes and oceans. Sometimes the toxins may be stored by shellfish feathers, hair, scales.
feeding on the algae and be passed on to man causing the disease called paralytic shellfish iv. Vertebrates have a large coelom containing vital organs.
poisoning. Algae also cause problems in water storage reservoirs where they may taint the v. Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system.
water and block the beds of sand used as filters. vi. The sexes are usually separate and reproduction is usually sexual.
c. Evolutionary trends in the vertebrates
ANIMAL-LIKE PROTOCTISTS i. Vertebrates have evolved from being totally dependent on water to
1. Motile, heterotrophs having a terrestrial lifestyle.
2. Includes sarcodines (e.g., Amoeba proteus), ciliates (e.g., Paramecium caudatum), and ii. Increasingly complex heart. Vertebrate hearts contain muscular
flagellates (e.g., Euglena sp.). chambers called atria (singular, atrium) and ventricles. Contraction of a chamber forces
a. Amebic dysentery is caused by an infection of an amoeba in the intestine which causes blood out. The atrium functions to receive blood that is returning to the heart. When it
diarrhea and sometimes bloody diarrhea. contracts, blood is pumped into the ventricle. When a ventricle contracts, blood is pumped
Characteristics away from the heart to the body, lungs, or gills.
There are approximately 65,000 named species of protoctistans that can be called protozoans (1) Circulatory System of Fish
Protozoans possess eukaryotic cells (a) Fish have a two-chambered heart with one atrium and
E. They are mostly heterotrophic (autotrophic and photosynthetic one ventricle. The gills contain many capillaries for gas exchange, so the blood pressure is
F. Protozoans ingest food by forming food vacuoles low after going through the gills. Low-pressure blood from the gills then goes directly to the
G. Reproduction body, which also has a large number of capillaries.
] ) Mostly asexual by a type of mitosis called binary fission (b) The activity level of fish is limited due to the low rate
a) A process where the body divides into two of blood flow to the body.
b) Division plane is random in amoebas (2) Circulatory System of Amphibians
c) Division plane is longitudinal for flagellates (a) Amphibians have a three-chambered heart with two
d) Division plane is transverse for ciliates atria and one ventricle. Blood from the lungs (pulmonary circuit) goes to one atrium while
e) Budding from parent organism can also occur blood from the body (systemic circuit) goes to the other atrium. Both atria empty into the
2) Sexual exchange sometimes occurs in some species ventricle where the blood is mixed.
3) Species alternate between sexual and asexual modes based on environmental conditions (b) The advantage of this system is that there is higher
H. Many parasitic protozoans may form a cyst by making their own resistant body covering. pressure in vessels that lead to both the lungs and body.
L Free-living protozoans live in damp soil, freshwater habitats, and marine habitats (3) Circulatory System of Reptiles
J. Parasitic protozoans live inside or on the moist tissues of a host organism (a) In most reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided. This
K. Like bacteria, some protozoans are major pathogens reduces the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle.
2. Classification (4) Circulatory System of Birds and Mammals
A. Protozoans can be classified according to their type of locomotion
 iii. Jointed appendages. Some are sensory while some are for feeding, B. We will study the following 4 classes
manipulating, and moving. 1) Class Flagellata
iv. Exoskeleton. a) Organ of locomotion -flagella
v. Waste from the blood is excreted as solid crystals. b) Example -Euglena
c. Digestion 2) Class Sarcodina
i. Arthropods show a wide variety of feeding strategies that are a) Organ of locomotion -pseudopodia
dependant on their feeding appendages b) Example –Amoeba
d. Circulation and gas exchange Phylum Rhizopoda - the amoebas
i. Circulation is open.  Heterotrophic,
ii. Arachnids exchange gases through a simple lung. Crustaceans have  Fresh and salt water, abundant in soil, some parasitize animals,
gills at the base of some legs. Insects are quite active and so need a more sophisticated  Reproduction by simple mitotic fission,
system of gas exchange. They have a system of tubes which open to the outside through  No cell walls, flagella, sexual reproduction,
which gases can travel.  Locomotion via pseudopodia (false feet),
e. Nervous system  Pseudopodia also used for prey capture prey includes algae, bacteria, and other
i. Well developed overall. protoctists,
(1) Crustaceans are able to detect tiny vibrations in the water and Class Sarcodina
have compound eyes able to form crude images.
 Usually live in aquatic environments like oceans, freshwater lakes, and ponds
(2) Insects have highly developed sensory gear and most can
 Are often part of plankton
detect stimuli outside the human range of detection. Most have a few simple eyes and a pair
 Pseudopods surround and phagocytize prey
of compound eyes which enable them to form images. They cannot focus well but are
 Reproduction -asexual by cell division along random cellular planes
excellent for detecting movement. Some insects have tiny hairs which detect air vibrations.
Structure of Amoeba
f. Reproduction
 Pseudopods -a cytoplasmic extension that is used for locomotion and engulfing food
i. Separate sexes.
ii. Pheromones are chemicals released by one individual to affect the  Food vacuole -sue of food digestion
behaviour of another individual. Sex pheromones are used to attract a mate.  Contractile vacuole -used to rid cell of excess water
g. Additional adaptations of insects
i. Camouflage and coloration
a. Hiding - blend into the environment to evade predators or hide from prey
b. Attracting attention - bright colors are used to warn potential predators
c. Mimicry - harmless insects mimic the coloration of a harmful one to avoid
being eaten.
ii. Social behaviour.
(1) Termites, bees, ants, and some wasps have complex social
systems with specific division of labour, making the colony more efficient by having
individuals who specialize in particular tasks.
10. Phylum Chordata Parasitic species may form resistant cysts Entamoeba histolytica: Causes amoebic dysentery.
a. General Cysts resist digestion by host carriers exhibit no symptoms but can spread cysts spread
i. Unlike the invertebrates, all chordates are in the same phylum.
through fecal contamination in food or water may be dispersed by flies
ii. Four characteristic features (not present in all adult chordates):
Phylum Sarcomastigophora - Zoomastigotes
(1) Hollow, dorsal nerve cord
 Unicellular, heterotrophic, highly variable in form
(2) Flexible rod (notochord) along the back of the embryo.
 Possess one to thousands of flagella
Muscles attach to the rod providing flexible locomotion and leads to the possibility of much
 Some free-living, some parasitic
large animals. This becomes the backbone in most Chordates.
 Some reproduce asexually only
(3) Pharyngeal (gill) slits located behind the mouth
  One group alternate between amoeboid and flagellated stages (2) In an open circulatory system, blood circulates freely in the
 Some trypanosomes are human pathogens cause sleeping sickness, East Coast fever, body cavity. As blood is pumped into body spaces, the organs are constantly bathed in it
Chagas' disease ii. Only cephalopods have a closed circulatory system with a heart and
 many spread by insects, such as tsetse flies blood vessels. The other mollusks have an open circulatory system.
 Some inhabit guts of wood-eating insects d. Nervous system
 have enzymes capable of digesting cellulose i. The nervous system is highly developed in cephalopods because they
 Choanoflagellates are similar to feeding cells of sponges and are likely ancestors of all are predators. They have a highly developed brain which allows them to learn and solve
animals problems. Their image-forming eyes gives them quite good vision.
 Hiker's Diarrhea: Caused by Giardia lamblia, found world-wide e. Reproduction
i. Most mollusks show sexual reproduction with separate sexes.
 Occurs in water, infects wild and domesticated animals, and humans
ii. Young care is highly developed in the octopus.
 Lives in small intestine of host
8. Phylum Annelida (little rings) - earthworms, leeches, some marine worms
 Spreads as cysts in feces, can survive for months in cool water
a. General
 May appear in city water supplies
i. Segmented worms (e.g., earthworms) have a body built from a series
 Resistant to treatment with chlorine and iodine, requires boiling water to kill of similar segments.
(1) The evolutionary advantage is that by changing one segment, it
can create a new body part without affecting other parts.
(2) Although segmentation is continued through all other phyla
(including humans) it is not always obvious. An example of segmentation in humans is seen
in muscles and in the spine.
b. Nutrition
i. One-way digestive system.
c. Circulation
i. Closed circulatory system. There is no real heart but the muscular
sections of some blood vessels are the beginnings of a more advanced system.
Phylum Ciliophora d. Nervous system
 Protozoans that move by action of cilia i. Simple brain and single nerve cord with short branches into each
 Ciliates are the most structurally complex and specialized of all Protozoa segment.
 Their cilia beat in a coordinated rhythmic manner e. Reproduction
 They use cilia to swim in freshwater and marine habitats to prey on bacteria, tiny i. Some annelids show separate sexes while some are hermaphrodites.
algae, and each other 9. Phylum Arthropoda
 They are heterotrophic and ingest their food items a. General
i. Arthropods are found in all habitats and are the most numerous and
 Most are free-living, but a few are parasitic
diverse of invertebrates.
 There are about 8,000 known species
ii. Jointed appendages are a major advancement because they can be
 We will study Paramecium as an example
specialized for different functions.
 Unicellular, heterotrophic, with many cilia
iii. The exoskeleton is rigid and made of chitin. It provides protection and
 Coordinated beating provides motility limits water loss. The exoskeleton is strong but its weight limits the size of arthropods. To
 Outer pellicle is tough but flexible become larger, animals require a strong, flexible endoskeleton. The problem with the
 Two types of nuclei; micronuclei - diploid - reserved for sex, macronuclei - polyploid exoskeleton is that the animal must molt to grow.
- for normal cellular metabolism b. Adaptations for success
 Specialized vacuoles ingest food and contractile vacuoles regulate water balance i. Segments have specialized functions.
 Food enters through gullet (cytostome) and passes into vacuoles where it is digested ii. Well defined head with excellent sensory apparatus.
Structure of Paramecium
 iv. These acoelomates have a thin body to allow diffusion of gases and 1) Cilia -tiny, hair-like structures that project through tiny holes in pellicle
nutrients 2) Pellicle -is a semi-rigid outer covering of cell
b. Nutrition 3) Trichocysts -are barbed threads that can be discharged for defense or capturing prey
i. The digestive system is branched with a single opening (two-way 4) Pathway of food entering Paramecium oral groove -) cytostome (mouth) cytopharynx
digestive system). (gullet) –
c. Nervous system Food vacuole Food is swept down the oral groove, through the cytostome (mouth) through the
i. Primitive eye spots allow planarians to distinguish light and dark. cytopharynx (gullet) below gullet food vacuole is formed
ii. Beginnings of cephalization. 5) Food vacuole -site of food digestion
d. Reproduction 6) Cytopyge (anal pore) -site where digested food wastes are released
i. Sexual hermaphrodites with the reproductive system only appearing 7) Contractile vacuole -rids cell of excess water
during mating season. Reproduction in Paramecium
ii. Asexual reproduction can result if the animal is split in two. I) Asexual by transverse binary fission
6. Phylum Nematoda 2) Sexual reproduction is by conjugation
a. Roundworms that live in soil and water. Most are harmless but some are a) During conjugation, two paramecia first unite at the oral areas, b) In each individual, the
parasitic. macronucleus disintegrates and the micronucleus
b. As pseudocoelomates, they have a body cavity located between endoderm and undergoes meiosis c) 2 individual Paramecia exchange haploid micronuclei d) New daughter
mesoderm. cells arise that have a combination of the genetic material of the original individuals.
c. Nutrition:
i. Having a separate mouth and anus creates a one-way digestive system.
d. Reproduction:
i. Sexual reproduction with separate sexes.
7. Phylum Mollusca
a. General
i. Second largest phylum of animals and second most successful land
animals, next to insects. There are more terrestrial mollusks than terrestrial vertebrates.
ii. These coelomates have a body cavity (coelom) that is completely
surrounded by mesoderm.
(1) The coelom allows space for more complex internal organs, a
digestive tract that can be longer than the animal, and a larger reproductive system.
iii. All mollusks, except for the bivalves, show clear cephalization. The
heavy shell makes these animals largely sessile so cephalization is not required.
b. Nutrition
i. The longer digestive tract with specialized organs allows better
digestion and more diverse food.
ii. Gastropods scrape food from surfaces. Bivalves use the gills to filter
food particles from the water. Cephalopods are predators with a hard beak for tearing and Phylum Apicomplexa - Sporozoans
biting.  Non-motile, spore-forming animal parasites
c. Circulation  Have an “apical complex” at one end of cell - with fibrils, microtubules, and vacuoles
i. A large body cavity requires the development of a circulatory system. - used to enter host cells Have complex life cycles with sexual and asexual phases
A fluid (often blood) is circulated by the contraction of a muscular heart (or hearts). Blood  Exhibit alternation of haploid and diploid generations
carries nutrients and oxygen to cells and carries wastes and carbon dioxide away.  Fusion of gametes produces a thick-walled cyst, the oocyst
(1) In a closed circulatory system, a network of vessels carries
 Meiotic divisions in oocyst produce infective haploid spores, sporozoites
blood to all parts of the body.
  Characteristic set of organelles (apical complex) at anterior end in some stages; cilia Phylum Porifera - sponges
and flagella usually absent; all species parasitic; about 5500 species. a. General
Class Gregarinea, belong to a herd or flock). 1. Sponges are the simplest of animals, lacking germ layers, symmetry, and tissues.
Mature gamete-producing individuals large, extracellular; gametes usually alike in shape and 2. The body is little more than a mass of specialized cells, not not organized into tissues.
size; parasites of digestive tract or body cavity of invertebrates; life cycle with one host. 3. Adults are sessile and remain anchored to the ocean floor or lake bottoms
Examples: Monocystis, Gregarina. Nutrition
Class Coccidea kernel, grain). Mature gamete-producing individuals. Small typically They gain nutrients by filtering particles out of the water.
intracellular, parasites mostly of vertebrates. Reproduction
Examples: Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Eimeria. Asexual reproduction by budding is common.
Class Sporozoa Sponges are hermaphrodites but produce eggs and sperm at different times to avoid self-
 Sporozoans have no specialized method of locomotion fertilization. This is called sequential hermaphroditism.
 There are about 3,900 species of non-motile, parasitic, spore-forming protozoans Phylum Cnidaria - jellyfish, sea anemones and corals
 They form sporozoites -a type of motile infective stage a. General
 Some have encysted stages i. Although starfish and sea urchins also display radial symmetry as
 Most cause serious human diseases adults, they are not in this phylum.
ii. Have only two germ layers which give rise to true tissues in the adult
 Plasmodium causes malaria
body.
 There are approximately 350 -500 million cases of malaria reported around the world
iii. Have two body forms
each year
(1) Polyp: cylindrical, generally attached to a substrate (e.g.,
anemone)
(2) Medusa: umbrella-shaped, free floating, gelatinous (e.g.,
jellyfish)
b. Nutrition
i. Carnivores which capture food with tentacles surrounding the mouth.
Cnidocytes (stinging cells) on the tentacles paralyze prey which is then brought into the
mouth.
ii. Food is digested in a gut (gastrovascular cavity) and the resulting
particles are absorbed by cells. This allows the animal to digest something larger than its
own cells. The extracellular digestion of food is an evolutionary development.
iii. The single opening (mouth/anus) is a two-way digestive system.
Life Cycle of Plasmodium c. Reproduction
i. Separate sexes jellyfish but lower cnidarians like the hydra show
Life cycle alternates between sexual phase in mosquito and asexual phase in humans asexual (budding) as well.
 In gut of female mosquito -gametes fuse to form a zygote that undergoes mitosis to 5. Phylum Platyhelminthes - flatworms
form many sporozoites. Sporozoites migrate to mosquito's salivary gland a. General
 Mosquito bites human and injects sporozoites into human blood stream where they i. Flatworms (e.g., planaria) can be found in marine or aquatic
migrate to the human liver. environments, as well as damp terrestrial habitats.
 In human liver cells, asexual spores called merozoites are produced and reenter human ii. Bilateral symmetry allows both the specialization of different body
blood stream and enter the red blood cells parts and cephalization. Cephalization allows animals to move through and experience their
 Red blood cells rupture and merozoites invade and reproduce asexually in new red environment head first. Having sensory equipment at the anterior end is more efficient for
blood cells seeking food and avoiding danger.
 Merozoites and their toxins are dumped into the blood stream when red blood cells iii. This phylum shows the first appearance of organs - a group of tissues
rupture. These toxins cause the chills and fevers associated with malaria that function as one unit.
Kingdom Animalia  Some merozoites become gametocytes that enter the human blood stream. If taken up
by the bite of a mosquito they become gametes in the gut of the mosquito
1. General Measures of Complexity Phylum Euglenophyta
a. Embryonic development o Class Euglenophyceae
i. The zygote becomes an adult through embryonic development. o We will study Euglena as an example of this Class
ii. The cells of the zygote divide to form a hollow ball of cells called a o There are approximately 1,000 know species of Euglena
blastula. This ball folds inward to form a gastrula during gastrulation. The opening of the o The food reserve is mainly paramylon,
gastrula becomes either the mouth or anus. o The photosynthetic pigment are chlorophyll a, and b, and β-carotene,
b. Germ layers o The cell wall bears reinforced pellicle
i. All cells of the adult organism can be traced to one of the three germ o Mode of locomotion is by flagella
layers. Some animals have only the inner and outer germ layers but more complex animals o They are a common inhabitant of fresh water ditches and ponds,
have mesoderm as well. o They are mixotrophic i.e. can make their own food by photosynthesis -
(1) Ectoderm - the inner layer gives rise to the outer covering of autotrophic and Ingest food from their surroundings (organic compounds
the animal (skin, hair, nails, feathers, scales) and the nervous system. dissolved in water) heterotrophic
(2) Mesoderm - gives rise to muscles, skeleton, circulatory Structures of Euglena
system, kidney, reproductive system
(3) Endoderm - gives rise to digestive tract and associated organs
c. Body cavity
i. The evolution of a body cavity is important because:
(1) Circulation - fluids moving in the cavity function as a
circulatory system
(2) Movement - fluid in the cavity makes the body rigid
(3) Organ function - organs can function without being deformed
(4) Food movement, digestion and waste removal - are not limited
by movement of the animal
ii. In terms of body cavity, animals are in one of three categories:
(1) Acoelomates - have no body cavity.
(2) Pseudocoelomates - have a body cavity partially surrounded
I ) Chloroplasts
by mesoderm.
a) Contain chlorophyll a and b like chlorophyll found in Division Chlorophyta (green algae)
(3) Coelomates - have a body cavity completely surrounded by
b) Their chloroplasts are also similar to those found in green algae
mesoderm.
c) Site of photosynthesis
d. Symmetry
2) Pellicle –a flexible protein covering
i. Asymmetry - The simplest animals have no symmetry.
3) Stigma -a light-sensitive eyespot
ii. Spherical - No animals possess spherical symmetry.
4) Contractile vacuole -a vacuole used for riding the cell of excess water
iii. Radial - The axis of symmetry goes through the center of the animal
G. Reproduction in Euglena
from top to bottom. These animals are more complex than those with no symmetry. No one
I) Asexual reproduction by longitudinal cell division
end leads.
2) Sexual reproduction is not known to occur in Euglena
iv. Bilateral - The axis of symmetry is through the middle of the animal
from head to tail. Bilateral organisms exhibit right and left halves, mirror images to each
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOANS
other.
2. Evolutionary trends in Kingdom Animalia 1. Several human diseases are caused by animal-like Protoctists.
a. Symmetry, germ layers, cephalization, digestive tract, reproduction, a. Malaria, which kills 2 million per year, is caused by protoctists that are transmitted
circulatory system, behaviour, segmentation, body size by mosquitoes.
 b. African sleeping sickness affects about 45,000 people per year. The Protoctists that (1) Flowers increase the efficiency of pollination.
causes it damages nerve cells which cause people to become unconscious. (a) Pollinators locate flowers odor, shape, color, and
texture. The pollen is also a food source for bees which attracts them to the flower. While
FUNGUS-LIKE PROTOCTISTS collecting pollen, bees get it on their legs and carry it to another plant. Some flowers are
1. These heterotrophs obtain nutrition by extra-cellular digestion. pollinated by insects such as butterflies and moths which have mouthparts specialized for
2. These grow in dark, shady habitats or on water and are called slime molds or water molds. collecting nectar.
3. Most are colorful and can be found underneath rotting logs or leaves. (b) Flowers are often shaped so that non-pollinators cannot
4. Slime molds produce sporangia and spores like higher fungi. reach nectar or pollen. For example, hummingbird-pollinated flowers are long, and shaped
5. Respiration - Protoctists are almost exclusively aerobic. like the bill of a hummingbird.
6. Nutrition; Protoctists display various feeding strategies: (c) Wind-pollinated flowers are small, have no petals and
 Some have chloroplasts and manufacture food like plants little color and do not produce nectar.
 Others ingest food like animals. (2) Adaptations of seeds help in their dispersal.
(a) Some seeds are carried by wind or water, while others
 Others absorb food like fungi.
stick to the fur of animals or are eaten.
7. Reproduction - all are capable of asexual reproduction but some reproduce sexually as
(3) Fruit is a very efficient way of dispersing seeds.
well.
(a) Fruit is very attractive to animals and when they eat the
Phylum Acrasiomycota – Cellular Slime Molds
fruit, they also ingest the seeds. The indigestible seeds pass through the animal’s digestive
Phylum Myxomycota –Plasmodial Slime Molds
tract and are deposited elsewhere.
Phylum Oomycota - water molds, rusts, mildew

1. Which of the following adjectives describe the major food source of protozoa?
a) Chemoautotrophic
b) Photoheterotrophic
c) Chemoheterotrophic
d) Heterotrophic
e) A, C, D
f) C, D
2. The protozoan Giardia lamblia can inhabit a human body’s intestinal tract and cause
gastroenteritis.
a) Give the abbreviated binomial name of this protozoan.
b) Would the relationship between this protozoan and human being be mutualistic,
commensalistic, or parasitic?
3. Found in many products, such as Petri dishes, agar is made from mucilagnious material in
seaweed. Of the six phyla of algae, which phyllum/phyla would agar be made from?
4. Which of the following adjectives describe the major food source of Euglenophytes without
an eyespot?
a) photoautotrophic
b) photoheterotrophic
c) chemoautotrophic
d) chemoheterotrophic
e) B or C
8. f) C or D
PROTOCTISTAN DIVERSITY
1. The Cell Surface
Fern Life Cycle: Amoeba lack a cell wall
 Spores produced on underside of fronds in clusters of sporangia called sori Algae and slime molds encased in strong cell walls
 Spores undergo meiosis, are spread by wind, & germinate on moist soil to form Diatoms and Foraminiferans have shells of silica, calcium, debris
prothallus 2. Locomotor Organelles
 Prothallus begins the Gametophyte stage Many move by flagella motions, or ciliary action, pseudopodial movement - many are
 Mature Gametophytes are small, heart-shaped structures that live only a short time immobile
 Male antheridia & female archegonia grow on the prothalli 3. Nutrition
 Sperm must swim to the egg to fertilize it & developing embryo becomes the Phototrophs and Heterotrophs (phagotrophs (ingesters) and saprobes)
Sporophyte generation 4. Reproduction
 Newly forming fronds are called fiddleheads & uncurl Asexual reproduction by mitosis, fission, budding, spores
Sex by gametic meiosis, zygotic meiosis, or sporic meiosis

General
Although originally classified as plants because they share some characteristics, fungi have
several characteristics that make them different:
1. They lack chlorophyll so they are not photosynthetic.
2. The cell wall is made of chitin rather than cellulose.
3. Fungi are heterotrophs and absorb food after secretion of enzymes and extracellular
digestion while plants are photosynthetic.
4. Fungi reproduce by spores rather than seeds.
5. Fungi are composed of filaments called hyphae. Hyphae may be branched. A dense mass
of hyphae is called a mycelium. Tubular, Hard wall of chitin, Cross-walls may form
compartments (± cells), Multinucleate, Grow at tips
6. Hyphae may contain internal cross-walls that divide the hyphae into separate cells. The
cross-walls of many species have pores, allowing cytoplasm to flow freely from one cell
to the next. Cytoplasmic movement within the hypha provides a means to transport
materials throughout the hyphae.
Reproduction
Uses for Ferns:  Most fungi reproduce sexually although there are a few examples of those that
 Prevent erosion reproduce asexually. Yeast is a notable exception as they show mostly asexual
 Fiddleheads serve as food reproduction.
 Ornamental plants  The hyphae of two individuals meet and fuse. The resulting fungus then contains DNA
 Formed coal millions of years ago from each of the two partners.
.  The above ground structure that we call a mushroom is actually the reproductive
structures of the fungus. Spores produced in the mushroom are dispersed and grow
iv. The success of angiosperms is due to the flower and the fruit as well as into new individuals.
their co-evolution with insects to improve pollination.
  Spores are non-motile, unlike the gametes of plants and animals.  Photosynthetic aerial stems & underground rhizomes
 Spores are dispersed over great distances by wind, insects, and animals.  Stems contain silica & were once used to scrub pots
Distinguishing Features of Fungi  Reproduce by means of spores made in small cones at the tip of branches
1. They have definite cell wall made up of chitin; a biopolymer made up of n-acetyl  In prehistoric times, some plants of this family grew to be large trees
glucosamine units.  Found in wetlands
2. They are without chlorophyll, hence they exhibit heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
They may be saprotrophic in their mode of nutrition or parasitic or symbiotic.
3. They are usually non – motile.
4. Their storage product is not starch but glycogen and oil.
5. They reproduce mostly by spore formation. However sexual reproduction also
takes place.
Nutrition
Fungi are heterotrophic in their mode of nutrition that is they require an organic source of
carbon. In addition they require a source of nitrogen, usually organic substances such as
amino acids. The nutrition of fungi can be described as absorptive because they absorb
nutrients directly from outside their bodies. This is in contrast to animals which normally
ingest food and then digest it within their bodies before absorption takes place. With fungi,
digestion is external using extracellular enzymes. Fungi obtain their nutrients as saprotrophs, Horsetail
parasites or symbionts. Division Pterophyta
 Eukaryotic Ferns:
 Do not contain chlorophyll  Largest group of living seedless vascular plants
 Non-photosynthetic  Live in moist habitats
 Absorptive heterotrophs - digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies  Alternates between dominant Sporophyte stage & Gametophyte stage
 Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host  Sporophyte stage has true roots, stems, & leaves
 Store food energy as glycogen  Produce spores on the underside of leaves
 Most are saprobes – live on other dead organisms
 Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
 Most are multicellular, but some unicellular like yeast
 Some are internal or external parasites; a few are predators that capture prey
 Non-motile
 Lack true roots, stems, & leaves
 Cell walls are made of chitin (a complex polysaccharide)
 Leaves are called fronds & are attached by a stem-like petiole
 Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae that contain cytoplasm & nuclei
 Hyphal networks are called mycelium
 Reproduce by sexual & asexual spores
 Grow best in warm, moist environments preferring shade
 Includes yeasts, molds, mushrooms, ringworm, puffballs, rusts, smuts, etc.
 Fungi may have evolved from prokaryotes by endosymbiosis
Vegetative (non-reproductive) Structures of Fungi
 Body of a fungus made of tiny filaments or tubes called hyphae

FERNS
  Hyphae contain cytoplasm & nuclei and has a cell wall of chitin
HYPHAE
 Each hyphae is one continuous cell
 Hyphae continually grow & branch
 Septum are cross walls with pores to allow
the movement of cytoplasm in hyphae
 Hyphae with septa are called septate hyphae
 Hyphae without septa are called coenocytic
hyphae

Whisk Fern
Division Lycophyta
Club Mosses:
 Low growing plants resembling pine trees
 Have a club-shaped spore producing structure

 Tangled mats of hyphae are known as mycelium

 All hyphae within a mycelium share the same cytoplasm so materials move quickly
 Hyphae grow rapidly from the tips by cell division
 Stolon is a horizontal hyphae that connects groups of hyphae to each other
 Rhizoids are root-like parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Reproductive Structures
 Most fungi reproduce asexually and sexually
 Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms and is the most
common method used
 Sexual reproduction in fungi occurs when nutrients or water are scarce
Club Moss
 Fruiting bodies are modified hyphae that make asexual spores
 Some like Lycopodium contain chemicals that burn quickly
 Fruiting bodies consist of an upright stalk or sporangiophore with a sac containing
 Resurrection moss is green (after rains) when moist and brown when dry.
spores called the sporangium
Resurrection Plant
SPORANGIOPHORES
 Types of fruiting bodies include basidia,
sporangia, and ascus
 Spores – haploid cells with dehydrated
cytoplasm and a protective coat capable of
developing into new individuals
 Wind, animals, water, and insects spread spores
 When spore lands on moist surface, new hyphae form

Division Sphenophyta
Horsetails:
 Equisetum called scouring rush is the only living species
Asexual Reproduction in Fungi  Reproduce by spores
 Fungi reproduce asexually when environmental conditions are  Grow on moist rocks or soil
favorable  Reproduce asexually by gemmae and by growing new branches
 Some unicellular fungi reproduce by mitosis
 Yeast cells reproduce by budding where a part of the cell Division Anthocerophyta
pinches off to produce more yeast cells
 Athlete’s foot fungus reproduce by fragmentation from a small Hornworts:
piece of mycelium
 Most fungi reproduce asexually by spores
 Small, nonvascular bryophytes
 Penicillium mold produces spores called conidia without a protective sac on the top of
 Gametophyte leafy like liverworts
a stalk called the conidiophore  Archegonia & antheridia form inside the plant
Sexual Reproduction in Fungi  After fertilization, zygotes develop into long, horn-shaped Sporophytes
 Fungi reproduce sexually when environmental conditions are unfavorable
 Horn-shaped Sporophytes capable of photosynthesis so not completely dependent on
 No male or female fungi
Gametophyte
 Two mating types --- plus (+) and minus (-)
 Fertilization occurs when (+) hyphae fuse with (-) hyphae to form a 2N or diploid
zygote
 Some fungi show dimorphism (ability to change their form in response to their
environmental conditions)
Classification of Fungi
 Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures
 The 4 phyla of fungi are Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and
Deuteromycota
Zygomycota
 Called sporangium fungi or common molds Hornwort
 Includes molds & blights such as Rhizopus stolonifer (bread mold) Seedless Vascular Plants
 Includes club mosses, whisk ferns, horsetails, & ferns
 Have specialized vascular tissues (xylem & phloem) to transport H2O, food, etc.
 Have a Sporophyte & Gametophyte stage known as alternation of generations
 Sporophyte is the dominant stage
 Reproduce by spores
Division Psilophyta
Whisk Ferns:
 Photosynthetic, aerial stem forks repeatedly to form a small twiggy bush
 No true roots, stems, or leaves
 No septa in hyphae (coenocytic)  Have horizontal, underground stems called rhizomes
 Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium & produces sporangiospores  Root-like structures called rhizoids anchor plant
 Rhizoids anchor the mold, release digestive enzymes, & absorb food  Reproduce by spores & vegetatively from rhizomes
 Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium and produces spores  Only 2 living genera
 Sexual spore produced by conjugation when (+) hyphae & (-) fuse is called zygospore
 Zygospores can endure harsh environments until conditions improve & new
sporangium
 Gemmae are tiny, cup shaped structures on the Gametophytes
 Raindrops separate gemmae from the parent plant so they can spread & form new
Gametophytes
Gemmae cups

The gametangia are cut off from the hyphae by complete septa. These gametangia may be
formed on hyphae of different mating types or on a single hypha. If both + and – mating
strains are present in a colony, they may grow together and their nuclei may fuse. Once the
haploid nuclei have fused, forming diploid zygote nuclei, the area where the fusion has taken
Uses for Moss:
place develops into an often massive and elaborate zygosporangium. A zygosporangium may
 Help decomposer dead logs
contain one or more diploid nuclei and acquires a thick
 Serve as pioneer plants on bare rock or ground
 Help prevent erosion
 Zygomycetes form characteristic resting structures, called zygosporangia, which contain
 Provide shelter for insects & small animals
one or more zygotic nuclei.
 Used as nesting materials by birds & mammals  The hyphae of zygomycetes are multinucleate, with septa only where gametangia or
 Sphagnum or peat moss forms peat bogs (wet ecosystem) sporangia are separated.
 Peat is burned as fuel in some areas

Division Hepatophyta

Liverworts:

 Nonvascular
 Undergo alternation of generations with Sporophyte attached to Gametophyte
 Gametophytes are green & leafy and the dominant generation

Division/Phylum Ascomycota
Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi. They are the largest phylum of Fungi,
with over 64,000 species. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus" ("sac" or
"wineskin"), a microscopic sexual structure in which non-motile spores, called ascospores,
are formed. However, some species of the Ascomycota are asexual, meaning that they do not
have a sexual cycle and thus do not form asci or ascospores.
 Includes yeast, cup fungi, truffles, powdery mildew, and morels
 Sac Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually
 Yeast reproduce asexually by budding (form small, bud-like cells that break off and
Liverwort make more yeasts)

 Need abundant water for fertilization

  Asexual spores called conidia form on the tips of specialized hyphae called  Flagellated sperm must swim to the egg through water droplets for fertilization
conidiophores  Moss gametes form in separate reproductive structures on the Gametophyte; Archegonium
 Ascocarp, specialized hyphae formed by parent fungi during sexual reproduction and Antheridium
 Ascus (sacs) within the ascocarp that form spores called Archegonium Antheridium
ascospores
The ascomycetes are a monophyletic group, i.e., all of its members
trace back to one common ancestor. This group is of particular
relevance to humans as sources for medicinally important
compounds, such as antibiotics and for making bread, alcoholic
beverages, and cheese, but also as pathogens of humans and plants.
Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewer's
 Each Archegonium forms one egg, but each Antheridium forms many sperm
yeast and baker's yeast, Dead Man's Fingers, and cup fungi. The
 Fertilization can occur only after rain when the Gametophyte is covered with water
fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens (loosely termed
 Sperms swim to the egg by following a chemical trail released by the egg
"ascolichens") such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota. There
 A zygote (fertilized egg) forms that undergoes mitosis and becomes a Sporophyte
are many plant-pathogenic ascomycetes, including apple scab, rice blast, the ergot fungi,
 Cells inside mature Sporophyte capsule undergoes meiosis and form haploid spores
black knot, and the powdery mildews. Several species of ascomycetes are biological model
 Haploid spores germinate into juvenile plants called protonema
organisms in laboratory research. Most famously Neurospora crassa, several species of
 Protonema begin the Gametophyte generation
yeasts, and Aspergillus species are used in many genetics and cell biology studies. Penicillium
species on cheeses and those producing antibiotics for treating bacterial infectious diseases
are examples of taxa that belong to the Ascomycota.

Protonema
 Spores are carried by wind & sprout on moist soil forming a new Gametophyte

Basidiomycota
It includes three classes. It includes the highly evolved fungi. This group got its name from
the basidium, the club shaped structure formed at the tip of the reproductive hypha. Each
basidium bears four basidiospores at its tip. Large reproductive structures or fruiting bodies
called basidiocarps are produced in this group of fungi. Common examples for
basidiomycetes include mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs and bracket fungi. The mycelia of
this group are of two types. Primary and secondary. Primary mycelium multiplies by oidia, Asexual reproduction in Mosses:
conidia like spores and pycnidiospores.  Asexual reproduction in moss may occur by fragmentation or gemmae
 Includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, bracket fungi, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts  Pieces of a Gametophyte can break off & form new moss plants (fragmentation)
Class Musci  Seldom reproduce asexually
 Most common bryophyte  Basidiocarps made up of stalk called the stipe and a flattened cap
 Grow on moist areas (brick walls, as thick mats on forest floors, and on the shaded side of  Stipe may have a skirt like ring below cap called the annulus
trees)  Gills are found on the underside of the cap and are lined with basidia
 Some can survive periodic dry spells & revive when H2O becomes available  Basidium – sexual reproductive structure that make basidiospores
 Must grow close together and must have H2O to complete their life cycle  Basidiospores are released from the gills and germinate to form new hyphae and
 Sperm swims to egg through drops of water during fertilization mycelia
 H2O moves cell-to-cell by osmosis  Vegetative structures found below ground and include rhizoids (anchor and absorb
 Sphagnum moss is known for its moisture holding capacity, absorbing up to 20 times its nutrients), hyphae, and mycelia
dry weight with water.  Hyphae are septate,
LIFE CYCLE OF MOSSES:  Vegetative body is dikaryophase.
 Mosses alternate between a haploid (n) gametophyte stage and a diploid (2n) sporophyte  Distinct sex organs are absent. Fusion occurs between two basidiospores or between
stage two hyphal cells of primary mycelia. Advanced forms of basidiomycetes produce
 Gametophyte is the dominant generation fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Fruiting bodies vary in size from small
Moss Gametophyte Moss Sporophyte microscopic to large ones.
Mushrooms
Mushrooms belong to a group of organisms called
fungi.
• The life cycle of a fungus begins as a spore
(the reproductive body) that grows when
conditions are just right. Out of the spore
wall grows a hypha that looks like a clear,
microscopic fingertip.
• The body of the fungus is made up of a
network of hyphal threads collectively
 Called alternation of generations called the mycelium. The mycelium grows
 The haploid gametophyte stage contains half the chromosome number and produces in soil or within dead wood or living organisms. When growing conditions are
gametes (egg and sperm) favorable, the mycelium develops fruiting bodies, appearing as what we recognize as
 Gametophyte stage is dominant in the moss's life cycle mushrooms or as other forms.
 Gametophytes are photosynthetic and have root-like rhizoids Nutrition
 The diploid sporophyte has a complete set of chromosomes and produces spores by Fungi find nutrition doing one of or a combination of four things:
meiosis 1. Fungi act as parasites and feed on living things, usually doing some degree of harm.
 Sporophyte of a moss is smaller than, and attached to the gametophyte Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down tissues. Examples: the "Cauliflower
 Sporophytes lack chlorophyll and depend on the photosynthetic gametophyte for food Mushroom" (Sparassis crispa).
 Sporophyte has a long, slender stalk topped with a capsule 2. Fungi form beneficial partnerships (symbiosis) with other organisms such as trees and
 Capsule forms haploid (n) spores flowering plants:
Moss a. Ectomycorrhizal fungi grow thick coats of mycelia around the rootlets of trees
Capsules and bring water and minerals from the soil into the roots. In return the host tree
Sexual Reproduction in Moss: supplies the fungus with sugars, vitamins and other root substances. Examples:
 Mosses produce 2 kinds of gametes (egg and sperm) conifer trees, aspen and birch, and the "Dead Man's Foot" (Pisolithus
 Gametes of bryophytes are surrounded by a jacket of sterile cells that tinctorius) which helps many plants grow.
keep the cells from drying out b. Endomycorrhizal fungi are microscopic soil fungi and penetrate the cells of
 Female gametes or eggs are larger with more cytoplasm and are plant roots. This relationship may be beneficial to both parties or may be
immobile harmful to one of them.
 3. Fungi decompose dead plant and animal matter. As called saprophytes, they act as In common with all land plants and some advanced algae such as Laminaria, bryophytes
recyclers of dead organic matter, obtaining food from this material. Hyphal tips exhibit alternation of generations. Two types of organism, a haploid gametophyte generation
release enzymes that eventually decompose and release organic materials into the and a diploid sporophyte generation, alternate in the life cycle. The cycle is summarized in
surrounding environment. Saprophytic fungi appear on dead trees, logs, plant litter the fig below.
such as leaves, and even dead insects and animals. Examples: "Gem-studded Puffball"
(Lycoperdon perlatum).
4. Fungi break down inorganic matter such as rocks in order to obtain nutrients. Fungal
hyphae, along with bacteria, dissolve rock to release nutrients.
Examples of Basidiomycota
Gilled Mushrooms
The basidiocarps of this group are large and conspicuous. They are the familiar mushrooms
and toadstools. The vegetative portion of the fungus exists as a mycelial network, which
grows saprobically beneath the substrate, often as mycorrhizae with trees. The basidia are
borne in a layer on the surface of "gills" which, in turn, are produced on the underside of
fleshy umbrella-like basidiocarps. The basidiospores are forcibly ejected from the basidium.
The basidiocarp consists of a stout stalk (stipe) bearing a circular cap (pileus) from which the
lamellae (gills) hang down. Most members of this order are saprobic but some are tree
parasites. It should be recognized that in the Agricales, the fruiting body (basidiocarp) is an The haploid generation is called the gametophyte because it undergoes sexual reproduction to
ephemeral structure usually lasting only a few days, whereas the mycelium, living on organic produce gametes. Production of gametes involves mitosis, so the gametes are also haploid.
matter in the soil, may last for years. The gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote which grows into the next generation, the diploid
Life Cycle of Basidiomycota sporophyte generation. It is called sporophyte because it undergoes asexual reproduction to
The mycelium of the Basidiomycota is always septate and in most species passes through
produce spores.
three distinct phases -primary, secondary, and tertiary- during the life cycle of the fungus. Production of spores involves meiosis, so that there is a return to the haploid condition. The
When it germinates, a basidiospore produces the primary mycelium. Initially the mycelium haploid spores give rise to the gametophyte generation. One of the two generations is always
may be multinucleate, but septa soon form and the mycelium is divided into monokaryotic
more conspicuous and occupies a greater proportion of the life cycle. This generation is called
(uninucleate) cells. This septate mycelium grows by division of the terminal cell. Branches as the dominant generation.
do occur, and the mycelial mass can become very complex. Commonly the secondary In all Bryophytes the gametophyte generation is dominant. In all other land plants, the
mycelium is produced by the fusion of primary mycelium from two different mating types sporophyte generation is dominant. It is customary to place the dominant generation in the top
(plasmogamy). half of the life cycle diagram. The figure given above summarizes the life cycle of a typical
The tertiary mycelium, which is also dikaryotic, arises directly from the secondary mycelium,
Bryophyte. One point that must be remembered here is that gamete production involves
and forms the basidiocarp. The spore forming basidia are produced by the terminal cell on mitosis and not meiosis as in animals. Meiosis occurs before the production of spores.
millions of dikaryotic hyphae. In a typical mushroom, basidia are found on gills, under the
Classification
cup. Karyogamy occurs between the two haploid nuclei within a developing basidium. Then, Bryophyta is divided into three major classes.
the diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. These nuclei then
Seedless Nonvascular Plants
migrate into four small extensions at the apical end of the basidium and are walled off to form  Includes mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
the four basidiospores.  Lack vascular tissue (xylem & phloem) to carry water & food
 Have a Sporophyte & Gametophyte stage known as alternation of generations
 Gametophyte is dominant stage
 Reproduce by spores
Division Bryophyta
Mosses:
 Small, nonvascular land plants
 No true roots, stems, or leaves
 The cell wall gives the plant cell strength and remains after the cell dies. In trees we call
this wood.
 Have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll and other pigments.
 Most plants are terrestrial although there are some exceptions.
Plant life cycles have two alternating phases, a haploid (n) phase and a diploid (2n) phase.
The diploid phase is called the sporophyte and produces spores, while the haploid is called
the gametophyte and produces gametes. The term diploid means having a complete set of
chromosomes. Haploid means having half a set of chromosomes.
Bryophytes
There are fossil records of blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) living 3000 million years ago and
many eukaryotic organisms have existed for more than 1000 million years. However the first
organisms to colonize the land are primitive plants did so only 420 million years ago. The
greatest simple problem to overcome in making the transition from water to land is that of
desiccation. Any plant not protected in some way, for example, by a waxy cuticle, will tend to
dry out and die very soon.
Salient features of Bryophyta
Bryophyta are the simplest group of land plants. They are relatively poorly adapted to life on Life Cycle of Typical Basidiomycota
land, so they are mainly confined to damp, shady places. These are terrestrial non-vascular Deuteromycota
plants (no vascular tissue namely xylem and phloem) which still require moist environment They are the so-called “Fungi Imperfecti”. It is a group of fungi known only from their
to complete their life-cycle. Hence these are called amphibians of plant kingdom. They are asexual (anamorphic) or mycelial state. Their sexual (perfect or teleomorphic) states are either
more advanced than algae in that they develop special organs. The male sex organ is called unknown or may possibly be lacking altogether.
antheridium and the female sex organ is called archegonium. Bryophytes show distinct Economic importance of Fungi
alternation of generation in their life cycles. Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts and Fungi are useful to mankind in many ways. These organisms play an important role in
hornworts. medicine, agriculture and industry. They have harmful effects also.
Distinguishing features of Bryophytes Useful aspects of fungi
1. They are small terrestrial plants.  The antibiotic Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by A. Fleming from the fungus
2. They are without a distinct root system but are attached to the substratum by means of thin, Penicillium notatum, which in 1940s emerged as a ‘wonder drug’ for the treatment of
filamentous outgrowth of the thallus called rhizoids. bacterial diseases. Many other important antibiotics are produced by moulds.
3. Water and mineral salts can be absorbed by the whole surface of the plant body, including  Many fungi are edible such as yeast, mushrooms, truffles, morels etc.
the rhizoids. So, the main function of rhizoids is anchorage, unlike true roots (true roots also  Edible mushrooms contain proteins and vitamins. Certain species that are edible cultivated
possess vascular tissues, as do true stems and leaves). Thus the “stems” and “leaves” found in commercially; Agaricus bisporus, A. arvensis, Volvariella volvacea and V. dispora.
some Bryophytes are not homologous with stems and leaves of vascular plants. The plant  Brewing and baking industries rely heavily on yeast (Saccharomyces). Yeasts ferment
body is called thallus. sugar solution into alcohol and carbondioxide. Alcohol is used in brewing industry and
4. They do not possess true vascular tissues. CO2 in baking industry.
5. Male sex organ is called antheridium and female sex organ is called archegonium.  The ‘biochemical genetics’ which later developed into the fascinating ‘molecular biology’
6. Sex organs are multi-cellular and they have a protective jacket layer of sterile cells. was founded by studies with Neurospora crassa, a fungus which was especially suited for
7. Sexual reproduction is of oogamous type. genetical analysis. Fungi like Neurospora and Aspergillus continue to be important
8. Bryophytes show distinct alternation of gametophytic generation with sporophytic organisms studied in genetics.
generation.  The dead cellulosic vegetation is decomposed into carbon and minerals by the
9. Gametophyte generation is dominant and independent. saprotrophic fungi and these elements are returned to the same environment from where
10. Sporophyte generation is very small, microscopic and dependent on the gametophyte they were obtained. Thus, fungi maintain the carbon and mineral cycles in nature.
phase. Harmful aspects of Fungi
Alternation of Generations
• Fungi are great nuisance. They grow on everything from jam to leather and spoil them.
LSD (d- lysergic acid diethylamide) produced from the fungus ergot (Claviceps purpurea)
produces hallucinations. Hence called “hallucinogenic fungus” and has cause great
damage to youth by giving an unreal, extraordinary lightness and hovering sensation.
• The fungus Phytophthora infestans causes ‘late blight of potato’. In 1845 this resulted in
such a disaster that about one million people died of starvation and over 1.5 million The evolution of modern plants occurred in several stages:
people fled to other countries since potato was the staple food of Ireland. i. Plants evolved from plant-like Protoctists.
Symbiosis ii. Inhabiting terrestrial habitats posed several problems in the evolution of
Two important types of symbiotic union are made by fungi. plants.
Lichens
They are symbiotic association found between algae and fungi. The alga is usually a green Terrestrial plants
alga or blue green alga. The fungus is an ascomycete or basidiomycete. It is believed that the
alga contributes organic food from photosynthesis and the fungus is able to absorb water and
mineral salts. The fungus can also conserve water and this enables some lichens to grow in
Non-Vascular Plants Vascular Plants
extreme dry conditions where no other plants can exist.
Lichens
 Symbiotic association between a sac fungus and a photosynthetic green algae or
cyanobacteria Seedless Plants Seed Plants
 Both organisms benefit (algae makes food and fungus supplies moisture, shelter, and
anchorage)
 Grow on rocks, trees, buildings, etc. and help form soil
 Crustose lichens grow on rocks and trees; fructose lichens grow shrub-like; foliose Naked Seed Plants Enclosed Seed
lichens grow mat-like on the soil
Mycorrhizae
These are symbiotic associations between a fungus partner and roots of higher plants. Most Monocots Dicots
land plants enter into this kind of relationship with soil fungi. The fungus may form a sheath
around the center of the root (an ectotrophic mycorrhiza) or may penetrate the host tissue
Evolutionary differences of plants
(an endotrophic mycorrhiza). The former type is found in many forest trees such as conifers,
beech and oak and involves the fungi of the division basidiomycetes. The fungus receives  Non-vascular plants (e.g., mosses) have no system for transporting water or nutrients.
carbohydrates and vitamins from the tree and in return breaks down proteins of the soil humus  Vascular plants have a system through which they can transport water and nutrients
to amino acids which can be absorbed and utilized by the plant. In addition the fungus throughout the plant. This allowed the plants to be taller and live further from water.
provides a greater surface area for absorption of ions such as phosphates.  Seedless plants (e.g., ferns) have a vascular system but reproduce using spores.
 Seed plants reproduce using seeds
 Gymnosperms (e.g., pine) have seeds that are not enclosed.
 Angiosperms (i.e., flowering plants) have seeds that are enclosed, usually in a fruit. This
is, by far, the most successful group of plants. Angiosperms can be arranged in two
groups:
 Monocots (e.g., grasses, palms)
 Dicots (e.g., trees, most common plants)
Basic characteristics of Kingdom Plantae
 Plants are multicellular, autotrophic, eukaryotes.
 Possess cell walls made of a carbohydrate called cellulose and store food in the form of
starch.