Kingdom Protoctista

GENERAL
Protoctista consists of organisms that do not seem to fit anywhere else and so they are all
placed in the same kingdom. At present, inclusion in the Kingdom Protoctista is a matter of
convenience rather than representing distinct evolutionary lines. Protoctists are some of the
earliest living things on Earth.
 However, protoctists can be grouped into three basic categories based on
morphological and life cycle traits: the protozoan, algae, and fungus-like protoctists.
 They are simple eukaryotes that are neither fungi, plants, nor animals but give rise to
them.
 They are so diverse that some argue they should be split into additional kingdoms.
 Most are small, single-celled organisms that are not necessarily related to one another.
 Protoctists are eukaryotes that lack the specialized features of fungi, plants, and
animals, although they do have membrane-bound organelles.
 The diversity of protoctists is so great that they posses few characteristics in common.
 They represent the present group to evolve intracellular structures such as the true
nucleus, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast, and mitochondrion.
Moreover, ancient members of this group gave rise to the plants, animals, and fungi.
 Other characteristics common to the protoctists are: almost all are found aquatic or
semi-aquatic environments, most require aerobic conditions.
 Most possess flagella or cilia at some point in their life history,
 Many are capable of producing cysts at some point in their life cycle that are resistant
to drought of freezing.
 Protoctists possess eukaryotic cells with well-defined nuclei and organelles
 Most are unicellular, however there are multi-cellular forms
 They are diverse in their structure
 They vary in size from microscope algae to kelp that can be over 100feet in length
 They are diverse (like bacteria) in the way they meet their nutritional needs
 Some are photosynthetic like land plants -are autotrophic
 Some ingest their food like animals -heterotrophic by ingestion
 Some absorb their food like bacteria and fungi -heterotrophic by absorption
 One species -Euglena -is mixotrophic meaning that it is capable of both autotrophic
and heterotrophic life styles.
 Reproduction in Protoctists
o is usually asexual by mitosis
o sexual reproduction involves meiosis and spore formation and usually occurs
only when environmental conditions are hostile
o spores are resistant and can withstand adverse conditions
  Photosynthetic protists (mostly algae) are part of plankton. Plankton are those
organisms suspended in fresh and marine waters that serve as food for heterotrophic
animals and other protists
unicellular eukaryotes (some multinucleate, a few loosely multicellular), not all have
mitochondria (microspores, many flagellates).
2. up to about 400 micrometers in size (some larger)
3. all have at least one nucleus
4. most are free living, but many parasitic forms including entire phyla
5. motile by a variety of mechanisms but also several non-motile taxa
6. Many have cyst stages secreted by trophic or spore stages
Cysts/spores have four basic functions:
• protect against unfavorable conditions
• serve as sites for multiplication
• assist in attachment to surfaces such as hosts
• transmission stage from host to host
7. all types of nutrition are exhibited by the Kingdom.
• autotrophs: photosynthesis
• heterotrophs (holozoic vs. saprozoic)
• phagocytosis: ingestion of solid particles (e.g., bacteria)
• pinocytosis: same as phagocytosis but intake of liquid
 • saprozoic or saprotrophy: diffusion or active transport across membra
SUB-KINGDOM ALGAE; PLANT-LIKE PROTOCTISTS
Of all protoctistians, green algae are the most similar to plants in terms of biochemistry and
structure. Some evolutionists believe green algae were the group from which plants evolved.
There are over 7,000 known species. They are of varied shapes; cells are attached in long
filaments,
possesses a cell wall and dividing cell wall between cells of a filament c) Chloroplasts are
spiral shaped d) Possesses pyrenoids that are intracellular particles associated with
chloroplasts, around which starch forms.
 Like plants, green algae 1) Possess chlorophylls a and b 2) Possess cell walls composed of
cellulose, pectins, and other polysaccharides
 Store carbohydrates as starch in their chloroplasts
 Mostly non-motile; photosynthetic
 Larger, multi-cellular algae are usually called seaweeds
 Although there are red, brown and green algae, only the green algae have chlorophyll and
cellulose and store food in the form of starch. This suggests that they are the ancestors of
all land plants.
 Massive blooms of a certain plant-like protoctists causes “red tides.” The Protoctists
produce a toxin that becomes concentrated in filter-feeding shellfish and can be paralysis
and death in humans who eat them.
 The red alga Porphyra is the one used to wrap sushi and a carbohydrate (carrageenan)
from some algae is used to make ice cream, pudding and many other products.
Characteristics
 Algae are chlorophyll bearing organisms with undifferentiated tissue that never forms true
roots, true stems, or true leaves
 The algal body is called a thallus
 Algae are mainly aquatic, but some may be found growing on soil, rocks, or other damp,
shaded surfaces
 Algae colors vary from green, blue-green, yellow-green to red, yellow, and brown
 Their shapes may be in the form of sheets, filaments, balls, or ribbons
 Many are microscopic in size while others may grow over 100feet like the giant kelps of
the Pacific Ocean
 Algae are at the very foundation of the food chain and are directly responsible for about
80% of the earth's oxygen.

PHYLUM CHLOROPHYTA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Spirogyra -an example of a green algae and 1) Spirogyra is sometimes called pond scum 2) It
is the green, slimy growth of most/arm ponds and slow moving streams 3) Structure. They
have photosynthetic pigment; chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and β-carotene,

e) Nucleus is well defined

f) Cytoplasm may occur in strands
4) Sexual Reproduction
a) Mitosis
b) Fragmentation of a filament
5) Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual reproduction is by a process called conjugation
 The cylindrical cells of the filament are haploid (n)
 At the beginning of conjugation 2filaments will align cell to cell
  Outgrowths of cells appear and eventually form conjugation tubes between adjacent
cells of 2 filaments
 The protoplasm (gamete) of one cell will move through the conjugation tube into an
adjoining cell and merge with the protoplasm (gamete) of the adjoining cell
 This fusion of 2 haploid protoplasms (gametes) forms a zygote that is diploid (2n)
 Original filaments dry up and break up and the zygote sinks to the bottom of stream or
pond
 Zygote becomes a zygospore by forming a protective outer wall and may overwinter
on stream bottom
 The following spring the zygospore undergoes meiosis to form a new haploid (n)
filament
 Sexual reproduction where gametes are alike is called isogamy.
 The life cycle of Spirogyra can be represented by the following simple diagram

Chlamydomonas is a typical unicellular form biflagellated light sensitive eye-spot zygotic

meiosis with zygospore resting stage Chlamydomonas. A very big genus of round, oval or
cylindrical cells which swim with two flagella of equal length.
T, "." rr"/ J. 1"/ rot ba a D. .a-o:cj. bLt a rpd pya 5polsuallyp resent The wall is smooth and
ihin Cells can be from 2 5 to 50sm or more in length, mostly b 20 (without including the
flagella as in all measurements t his booklet O. FoLrnidn every kind of aquatic habitat species
of this genus are the most likely green swimming cells to be encountered

Chlamydomonas
 Cell wall: a tough ‘shell’ enclosing the cell, made of proteins and carbohydrates.
 Chloroplast: cup-shaped, contains the green pigment chlorophyll which traps energy from
sunlight.
 Contractile vacuoles: Chlamydomonas has one pair of contractile vacuoles, hollow balls
that rhythmically fill with excess water and then contract as they pump the excess water
from the cell.
 Eyespot (stigma): part of the light-sensor (‘eye’) that allows the cell to detect where light
is coming from so that it can stay in sunlight for photosynthesis to occur.
 Flagellum (plural flagella): one pair of flagella - whip-like appendages, the cell’s engines,
that wave about enabling the cell to swim by pulling it through the water.
 Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria): power house of the cell - uses oxygen to burn
sugars as fuel.
 Nucleus: the command-and-control centre of the cell; stores information as DNA.
 Pyrenoid: part of the chloroplast that uses energy trapped from sunlight by chlorophyll to
synthesize starch from carbon dioxide.
 Starch grains: a carbohydrate fuel reserve, some off the starch is broken down into glucose
as burnt inside the mitochondrion to provide the cell with energy. Some is converted into
other building materials, such as oils, other carbohydrates, proteins and DNA.
 Vacuoles: fluid-filled balls that store materials.

DIVISION PHAEOPHYTA
There are about 1,500 species of brown algae and nearly all are found in cool or temperate sea
water. They are commonly called brown sea-weed; masses of floating brown algae called
Sargassum are the basis of the great floating ecosystem called the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic
Ocean.
1. Brown algae range from microscopic species to giants that form underwater forests in
the sea,
2. Phaeophytes are nearly all multicellular marine organisms,
3. The photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, b and β-carotene,
4. The food reserves are laminarin,
5. The body form is thallus,
6. They have cell walls composed of cellulose and alginic acid (a substance similar to
pectin). The cellulose and alginic acid help to retain water and prevent seawood from
drying out when exposed to air at low tide.
7. Since phaeophytes live in a tidal environment, they have large, flat fronds which can
withstand pounding by waves. Their bases strongly anchor the algae to the rocky
seabed and prevent them from being washed out to sea.
8. Phaeophytes are usually found in areas of cold water.
9. In the Far East, people harvest kelp as a source for food and mineral salts, and as a
fertilizer for crops e.g. Laminaria, Fucus, Sargassum

Two visible features set the Phaeophyceae apart from all other algae.
1. Members of the group possess a characteristic color that ranges from an olive green to
various shades of brown. The particular shade depends upon the amount of
fucoxanthin present in the alga.
2. All brown algae are multicellular. There are no known species that exist as single cells
or as colonies of cells, and the brown algae are the only major group of seaweeds that
 does not include such forms. However, this may be the result of classification rather
than a consequence of evolution, as all the groups hypothesized to be the closest
relatives of the browns include single-celled or colonial forms.
Whatever their form, the body of all brown algae is termed a thallus, indicating that it lacks
the complex xylem and phloem of vascular plants. This does not mean that brown algae
completely lack specialized structures. But, because some botanists define "true" stems,
leaves, and roots by the presence of these tissues, their absence in the brown algae means that
the stem-like and leaf-like structures found in some groups of brown algae must be described
using different terminology. Although not all brown algae are structurally complex, those that
are typically possess one or more characteristic parts.
A holdfast is a root-like structure present at the base of the alga. Like a root system in plants,
a holdfast serves to anchor the alga in place on the substrate where it grows, and thus prevents
the alga from being carried away by the current. Unlike a root system, the holdfast generally
does not serve as the primary organ for water uptake, nor does it take in nutrients from the
substrate. The overall physical appearance of the holdfast differs among various brown algae
and among various substrates. It may be heavily branched, or it may be cup-like in
appearance. A single alga typically has just one holdfast, although some species have more
than one stipe growing from their holdfast.
A stipe is a stalk or stem-like structure present in an alga. It may grow as a short structure
near the base of the alga (as in Laminaria), or it may develop into a large, complex structure
running throughout the algal body. In the most structurally differentiated brown algae (such as
Fucus), the tissues within the stipe are divided into three distinct layers or regions. These
regions include central pith, a surrounding cortex, and an outer epidermis, each of which has
an analog in the stem of a vascular plant. In some brown algae, the pith region includes a core
of elongated cells that resemble the phloem of vascular plants both in structure and function.
In others (such as Nereocystis), the center of the stipe is hollow and filled with gas that serves
to keep that part of the alga buoyant. The stipe may be relatively flexible and elastic in species
like Macrocystis pyrifera that grow in strong currents, or may be more rigid in species like
Postelsia palmaeformis that are exposed to the atmosphere at low tide.

DIVISION RHODOPHYTA
The red algae are characterized by a distinctive red color, they are often called the most
beautiful of the algae, there are 4,100 species and most all are marine, most are branched and
feathery in body form and are seldom over 2 or 3 feet long.
1. Most common coastal seaweeds - mostly multicellular, common in warm waters,
2. Chloroplasts have Chlorophyll a, biliproteins, phycobilins, α & β-Carotene,
3. Like cyanobacteria, they absorb green, violet and blue light
4. The cell wall is made up of agar, food reserves are glycans,
5. Extracts from red algae are used as a moisture preserving agent in baked goods
and cosmetics
6. A setting agent in jellies
7. Soft capsules for drugs and vitamins
8. A stabilizer in paints and dairy products e.g., Batrachospermum, Rhodymenia,
Polysiphonia
 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE
1. One species of red algae is used as nori in sushi bars as wrapping for rice and fish.
2. Some make sulfated polysaccharides like agar and carrageenan
3. Agar used as laboratory medium, a base for cosmetics, used in baked goods and as a
temporary preservative for meat and fish
4. Carrageenan used in paints, cosmetics and ice cream
Economic Importance of Algae
Recent estimates show that nearly half the world’s productivity that is carbon fixation comes
from the oceans. This is contributed by the algae, the only vegetation in the sea. Algae are
vital as primary producers being at the start of most of aquatic food chains.
Algae as Food: Algae are important as a source of food for human beings, domestic animals
and fishes. Species of Porphyra are eaten in Japan, England and USA. Ulva, Laminaria,
Sargassum and Chlorella are also used as food in several countries. Sea weeds (Laminaria,
Fucus, Ascophyllum) are used as fodder for domestic animals.
Algae in Agriculture: Various blue green algae such as Oscillatoria,
Anabaena, Nostoc, Aulosira increase the soil fertility by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen. In
view of the increasing energy demands and rising costs of chemically making nitrogenous
fertilizers, much attention is now being given to nitrogen fixing bacteria and blue green algae.
Many species of sea weeds are used as fertilizers in China and Japan.
Algae in Industry
a. Agar – agar: This substance is used as a culture medium while growing bacteria and fungi
in the laboratory. It is also used in the preparations of some medicines and cosmetics. It is
obtained from the red algae Gelidium and Gracillaria.
b. A phycocolloid Alginic acid is obtained from brown algae. Algin is used as emulsifier in
ice creams, tooth pastes and cosmetics.
c. Idodine: It is obtained from kelps (brown algae) especially from species of Laminaria.
d. Diatomite: It is a rock-like deposit formed on the siliceous walls of diatoms (algae of
Chrysophyceae). When they die, they form sediment, so that on the seabed and lake bottom,
extensive deposits can be built up over long periods of time. The resulting ‘diatomaceous
earth’ has a high proportion of silica. Diatomite is used as a fire proof material and also as an
absorbent. It is used in sound and fire proof rooms. It is also used in packing of corrosive
materials and also in the manufacture of dynamite.
Algae in space travel: Chlorella pyrenoidosa is used in space travel to get rid of CO2 and
other body wastes. The algae multiply rapidly and utilize the CO2 and liberate 02 during
photosynthesis. It decomposes human urine and faeces to get N2 for protein synthesis.
Single cell protein (SCP): Chlorella and Spirulina which are unicellular algae are rich in
protein and they are used as protein source. Besides, Chlorella is a source of vitamin also.
The rich protein and amino acid content of chlorella and Spirullina make them ideal for
single cell protein production. An antibiotic Chlorellin is extracted from Chlorella.
Sewage Disposal: Algae like Chlorella are grown in large shallow tanks, containing sewage.
These algae produce abundant oxygen by rapid photosynthesis.
Microorganisms like aerobic bacteria use this oxygen and decompose the organic matter and
thus the sewage gets purified.
Harmful effects of Algae
Under certain conditions algae produce ‘blooms’, that is dense masses of material. This is
especially true in relatively warm conditions when there is high nutrient availability, which
sometimes is induced by man as and when sewage is added to water or inorganic fertilizers
run off from agricultural land into rivers and lakes. As a result of this a sudden and explosive
growth of these primary producers (algae) occurs. They are produced in such a huge quantity
that they die before being eaten. The process of decomposition is carried out by aerobic
bacteria which in turn multiply rapidly and deplete the water of oxygen. The lack of oxygen
leads to the death of fish and other animals and plants in the lakes. The increase of nutrients
which starts off the entire process is called eutrophication and if rapid it constitutes a major
problem of pollution. The toxins produced by algal bloom can also lead to mortality. This can
be a serious problem in lakes and oceans. Sometimes the toxins may be stored by shellfish
feeding on the algae and be passed on to man causing the disease called paralytic shellfish
poisoning. Algae also cause problems in water storage reservoirs where they may taint the
water and block the beds of sand used as filters.

ANIMAL-LIKE PROTOCTISTS
1. Motile, heterotrophs
2. Includes sarcodines (e.g., Amoeba proteus), ciliates (e.g., Paramecium caudatum), and
flagellates (e.g., Euglena sp.).
a. Amebic dysentery is caused by an infection of an amoeba in the intestine which causes
diarrhea and sometimes bloody diarrhea.
Characteristics
There are approximately 65,000 named species of protoctistans that can be called protozoans
Protozoans possess eukaryotic cells
E. They are mostly heterotrophic (autotrophic and photosynthetic
F. Protozoans ingest food by forming food vacuoles
G. Reproduction
] ) Mostly asexual by a type of mitosis called binary fission
a) A process where the body divides into two
b) Division plane is random in amoebas
c) Division plane is longitudinal for flagellates
d) Division plane is transverse for ciliates
e) Budding from parent organism can also occur
2) Sexual exchange sometimes occurs in some species
3) Species alternate between sexual and asexual modes based on environmental conditions
H. Many parasitic protozoans may form a cyst by making their own resistant body covering.
L Free-living protozoans live in damp soil, freshwater habitats, and marine habitats
J. Parasitic protozoans live inside or on the moist tissues of a host organism
K. Like bacteria, some protozoans are major pathogens
2. Classification
A. Protozoans can be classified according to their type of locomotion
B. We will study the following 4 classes
1) Class Flagellata
a) Organ of locomotion -flagella
b) Example -Euglena
2) Class Sarcodina
a) Organ of locomotion -pseudopodia
b) Example –Amoeba
Phylum Rhizopoda - the amoebas
 Heterotrophic,
 Fresh and salt water, abundant in soil, some parasitize animals,
 Reproduction by simple mitotic fission,
 No cell walls, flagella, sexual reproduction,
 Locomotion via pseudopodia (false feet),
 Pseudopodia also used for prey capture prey includes algae, bacteria, and other
protoctists,
Class Sarcodina
 Usually live in aquatic environments like oceans, freshwater lakes, and ponds
 Are often part of plankton
 Pseudopods surround and phagocytize prey
 Reproduction -asexual by cell division along random cellular planes
Structure of Amoeba
 Pseudopods -a cytoplasmic extension that is used for locomotion and engulfing food
 Food vacuole -sue of food digestion
 Contractile vacuole -used to rid cell of excess water

Parasitic species may form resistant cysts Entamoeba histolytica: Causes amoebic dysentery.
Cysts resist digestion by host carriers exhibit no symptoms but can spread cysts spread
through fecal contamination in food or water may be dispersed by flies
Phylum Sarcomastigophora - Zoomastigotes
 Unicellular, heterotrophic, highly variable in form
 Possess one to thousands of flagella
 Some free-living, some parasitic
 Some reproduce asexually only
 One group alternate between amoeboid and flagellated stages
 Some trypanosomes are human pathogens cause sleeping sickness, East Coast fever,
Chagas' disease
 many spread by insects, such as tsetse flies
  Some inhabit guts of wood-eating insects
 have enzymes capable of digesting cellulose
 Choanoflagellates are similar to feeding cells of sponges and are likely ancestors of all
animals
 Hiker's Diarrhea: Caused by Giardia lamblia, found world-wide
 Occurs in water, infects wild and domesticated animals, and humans
 Lives in small intestine of host
 Spreads as cysts in feces, can survive for months in cool water
 May appear in city water supplies
 Resistant to treatment with chlorine and iodine, requires boiling water to kill

Phylum Ciliophora
 Protozoans that move by action of cilia
 Ciliates are the most structurally complex and specialized of all Protozoa
 Their cilia beat in a coordinated rhythmic manner
 They use cilia to swim in freshwater and marine habitats to prey on bacteria, tiny
algae, and each other
 They are heterotrophic and ingest their food items
 Most are free-living, but a few are parasitic
 There are about 8,000 known species
 We will study Paramecium as an example
 Unicellular, heterotrophic, with many cilia
 Coordinated beating provides motility
 Outer pellicle is tough but flexible
 Two types of nuclei; micronuclei - diploid - reserved for sex, macronuclei - polyploid
- for normal cellular metabolism
 Specialized vacuoles ingest food and contractile vacuoles regulate water balance
 Food enters through gullet (cytostome) and passes into vacuoles where it is digested
Structure of Paramecium
1) Cilia -tiny, hair-like structures that project through tiny holes in pellicle
2) Pellicle -is a semi-rigid outer covering of cell
3) Trichocysts -are barbed threads that can be discharged for defense or capturing prey
4) Pathway of food entering Paramecium oral groove -) cytostome (mouth) cytopharynx
(gullet) –
Food vacuole Food is swept down the oral groove, through the cytostome (mouth) through the
cytopharynx (gullet) below gullet food vacuole is formed
5) Food vacuole -site of food digestion
6) Cytopyge (anal pore) -site where digested food wastes are released
7) Contractile vacuole -rids cell of excess water
Reproduction in Paramecium
I) Asexual by transverse binary fission
2) Sexual reproduction is by conjugation
a) During conjugation, two paramecia first unite at the oral areas, b) In each individual, the
macronucleus disintegrates and the micronucleus
undergoes meiosis c) 2 individual Paramecia exchange haploid micronuclei d) New daughter
cells arise that have a combination of the genetic material of the original individuals.

Phylum Apicomplexa - Sporozoans

 Non-motile, spore-forming animal parasites
 Have an “apical complex” at one end of cell - with fibrils, microtubules, and vacuoles
- used to enter host cells Have complex life cycles with sexual and asexual phases
 Exhibit alternation of haploid and diploid generations
 Fusion of gametes produces a thick-walled cyst, the oocyst
 Meiotic divisions in oocyst produce infective haploid spores, sporozoites
 Characteristic set of organelles (apical complex) at anterior end in some stages; cilia
and flagella usually absent; all species parasitic; about 5500 species.
Class Gregarinea, belong to a herd or flock).
Mature gamete-producing individuals large, extracellular; gametes usually alike in shape and
size; parasites of digestive tract or body cavity of invertebrates; life cycle with one host.
Examples: Monocystis, Gregarina.
Class Coccidea kernel, grain). Mature gamete-producing individuals. Small typically
intracellular, parasites mostly of vertebrates.
Examples: Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Eimeria.
Class Sporozoa
 Sporozoans have no specialized method of locomotion
 There are about 3,900 species of non-motile, parasitic, spore-forming protozoans
 They form sporozoites -a type of motile infective stage
 Some have encysted stages
 Most cause serious human diseases
 Plasmodium causes malaria
 There are approximately 350 -500 million cases of malaria reported around the world
each year

Life Cycle of Plasmodium

Life cycle alternates between sexual phase in mosquito and asexual phase in humans
 In gut of female mosquito -gametes fuse to form a zygote that undergoes mitosis to
form many sporozoites. Sporozoites migrate to mosquito's salivary gland
 Mosquito bites human and injects sporozoites into human blood stream where they
migrate to the human liver.
 In human liver cells, asexual spores called merozoites are produced and reenter human
blood stream and enter the red blood cells
 Red blood cells rupture and merozoites invade and reproduce asexually in new red
blood cells
 Merozoites and their toxins are dumped into the blood stream when red blood cells
rupture. These toxins cause the chills and fevers associated with malaria
 Some merozoites become gametocytes that enter the human blood stream. If taken up
by the bite of a mosquito they become gametes in the gut of the mosquito
Phylum Euglenophyta
o Class Euglenophyceae
o We will study Euglena as an example of this Class
o There are approximately 1,000 know species of Euglena
o The food reserve is mainly paramylon,
 o The photosynthetic pigment are chlorophyll a, and b, and β-carotene,
o The cell wall bears reinforced pellicle
o Mode of locomotion is by flagella
o They are a common inhabitant of fresh water ditches and ponds,
o They are mixotrophic i.e. can make their own food by photosynthesis -
autotrophic and Ingest food from their surroundings (organic compounds
dissolved in water) heterotrophic
Structures of Euglena

I ) Chloroplasts
a) Contain chlorophyll a and b like chlorophyll found in Division Chlorophyta (green algae)
b) Their chloroplasts are also similar to those found in green algae
c) Site of photosynthesis
2) Pellicle –a flexible protein covering
3) Stigma -a light-sensitive eyespot
4) Contractile vacuole -a vacuole used for riding the cell of excess water
G. Reproduction in Euglena
I) Asexual reproduction by longitudinal cell division
2) Sexual reproduction is not known to occur in Euglena

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOANS

1. Several human diseases are caused by animal-like Protoctists.
a. Malaria, which kills 2 million per year, is caused by protoctists that are transmitted
by mosquitoes.
b. African sleeping sickness affects about 45,000 people per year. The Protoctists that
causes it damages nerve cells which cause people to become unconscious.

FUNGUS-LIKE PROTOCTISTS
1. These heterotrophs obtain nutrition by extra-cellular digestion.
2. These grow in dark, shady habitats or on water and are called slime molds or water molds.
3. Most are colorful and can be found underneath rotting logs or leaves.
4. Slime molds produce sporangia and spores like higher fungi.
5. Respiration - Protoctists are almost exclusively aerobic.
6. Nutrition; Protoctists display various feeding strategies:
 Some have chloroplasts and manufacture food like plants
 Others ingest food like animals.
 Others absorb food like fungi.
7. Reproduction - all are capable of asexual reproduction but some reproduce sexually as
well.
Phylum Acrasiomycota – Cellular Slime Molds
Phylum Myxomycota –Plasmodial Slime Molds
Phylum Oomycota - water molds, rusts, mildew

1. Which of the following adjectives describe the major food source of protozoa?
a) Chemoautotrophic
b) Photoheterotrophic
c) Chemoheterotrophic
d) Heterotrophic
e) A, C, D
f) C, D
2. The protozoan Giardia lamblia can inhabit a human body’s intestinal tract and cause
gastroenteritis.
a) Give the abbreviated binomial name of this protozoan.
b) Would the relationship between this protozoan and human being be mutualistic,
commensalistic, or parasitic?
3. Found in many products, such as Petri dishes, agar is made from mucilagnious material in
seaweed. Of the six phyla of algae, which phyllum/phyla would agar be made from?
4. Which of the following adjectives describe the major food source of Euglenophytes without
an eyespot?
a) photoautotrophic
b) photoheterotrophic
c) chemoautotrophic
d) chemoheterotrophic
e) B or C
8. f) C or D
PROTOCTISTAN DIVERSITY
1. The Cell Surface
Amoeba lack a cell wall
Algae and slime molds encased in strong cell walls
Diatoms and Foraminiferans have shells of silica, calcium, debris
2. Locomotor Organelles
Many move by flagella motions, or ciliary action, pseudopodial movement - many are
immobile
3. Nutrition
Phototrophs and Heterotrophs (phagotrophs (ingesters) and saprobes)
4. Reproduction
Asexual reproduction by mitosis, fission, budding, spores
Sex by gametic meiosis, zygotic meiosis, or sporic meiosis

Kingdom Fungi
General
Although originally classified as plants because they share some characteristics, fungi have
several characteristics that make them different:
1. They lack chlorophyll so they are not photosynthetic.
2. The cell wall is made of chitin rather than cellulose.
3. Fungi are heterotrophs and absorb food after secretion of enzymes and extracellular
digestion while plants are photosynthetic.
4. Fungi reproduce by spores rather than seeds.
5. Fungi are composed of filaments called hyphae. Hyphae may be branched. A dense mass

of hyphae is called a mycelium. Tubular, Hard wall of chitin, Cross-walls may form
compartments (± cells), Multinucleate, Grow at tips
6. Hyphae may contain internal cross-walls that divide the hyphae into separate cells. The
cross-walls of many species have pores, allowing cytoplasm to flow freely from one cell
to the next. Cytoplasmic movement within the hypha provides a means to transport
materials throughout the hyphae.
Reproduction
 Most fungi reproduce sexually although there are a few examples of those that
reproduce asexually. Yeast is a notable exception as they show mostly asexual
reproduction.
 The hyphae of two individuals meet and fuse. The resulting fungus then contains DNA
from each of the two partners.
 The above ground structure that we call a mushroom is actually the reproductive
structures of the fungus. Spores produced in the mushroom are dispersed and grow
into new individuals.
 Spores are non-motile, unlike the gametes of plants and animals.
 Spores are dispersed over great distances by wind, insects, and animals.
Distinguishing Features of Fungi
1. They have definite cell wall made up of chitin; a biopolymer made up of n-acetyl
glucosamine units.
2. They are without chlorophyll, hence they exhibit heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
They may be saprotrophic in their mode of nutrition or parasitic or symbiotic.
 3. They are usually non – motile.
4. Their storage product is not starch but glycogen and oil.
5. They reproduce mostly by spore formation. However sexual reproduction also
takes place.
Nutrition
Fungi are heterotrophic in their mode of nutrition that is they require an organic source of
carbon. In addition they require a source of nitrogen, usually organic substances such as
amino acids. The nutrition of fungi can be described as absorptive because they absorb
nutrients directly from outside their bodies. This is in contrast to animals which normally
ingest food and then digest it within their bodies before absorption takes place. With fungi,
digestion is external using extracellular enzymes. Fungi obtain their nutrients as saprotrophs,
parasites or symbionts.
 Eukaryotic
 Do not contain chlorophyll
 Non-photosynthetic
 Absorptive heterotrophs - digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
 Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
 Store food energy as glycogen
 Most are saprobes – live on other dead organisms
 Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
 Most are multicellular, but some unicellular like yeast
 Some are internal or external parasites; a few are predators that capture prey
 Non-motile
 Lack true roots, stems, & leaves
 Cell walls are made of chitin (a complex polysaccharide)
 Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae that contain cytoplasm & nuclei
 Hyphal networks are called mycelium
 Reproduce by sexual & asexual spores
 Grow best in warm, moist environments preferring shade
 Includes yeasts, molds, mushrooms, ringworm, puffballs, rusts, smuts, etc.
 Fungi may have evolved from prokaryotes by endosymbiosis
Vegetative (non-reproductive) Structures of Fungi
 Body of a fungus made of tiny filaments or tubes called hyphae
 Hyphae contain cytoplasm & nuclei and has a cell wall of chitin
HYPHAE
 Each hyphae is one continuous cell
 Hyphae continually grow & branch
 Septum are cross walls with pores to allow
the movement of cytoplasm in hyphae
 Hyphae with septa are called septate hyphae
 Hyphae without septa are called coenocytic
hyphae
 Tangled mats of hyphae are known as
mycelium
  All hyphae within a mycelium share the same cytoplasm so materials move quickly
 Hyphae grow rapidly from the tips by cell division
 Stolon is a horizontal hyphae that connects groups of hyphae to each other
 Rhizoids are root-like parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Reproductive Structures
 Most fungi reproduce asexually and sexually
 Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical organisms and is the most
common method used
 Sexual reproduction in fungi occurs when nutrients or water are scarce
 Fruiting bodies are modified hyphae that make asexual spores
 Fruiting bodies consist of an upright stalk or sporangiophore with a sac containing
spores called the sporangium
SPORANGIOPHORES
 Types of fruiting bodies include basidia,
sporangia, and ascus
 Spores – haploid cells with dehydrated
cytoplasm and a protective coat capable of
developing into new individuals
 Wind, animals, water, and insects spread spores
 When spore lands on moist surface, new hyphae form
Asexual Reproduction in Fungi
 Fungi reproduce asexually when environmental
conditions are favorable
 Some unicellular fungi reproduce by mitosis
 Yeast cells reproduce by budding where a part of the cell
pinches off to produce more yeast cells
 Athlete’s foot fungus reproduce by fragmentation from a small
piece of mycelium
 Most fungi reproduce asexually by spores
 Penicillium mold produces spores called conidia without a protective sac on the top of
a stalk called the conidiophore
Sexual Reproduction in Fungi
 Fungi reproduce sexually when environmental conditions are unfavorable
 No male or female fungi
 Two mating types --- plus (+) and minus (-)
 Fertilization occurs when (+) hyphae fuse with (-) hyphae to form a 2N or diploid
zygote
 Some fungi show dimorphism (ability to change their form in response to their
environmental conditions)
Classification of Fungi
 Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures
 The 4 phyla of fungi are Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and
Deuteromycota
Zygomycota
  Called sporangium fungi or common molds
 Includes molds & blights such as Rhizopus stolonifer (bread mold)

 No septa in hyphae (coenocytic)

 Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium & produces sporangiospores
 Rhizoids anchor the mold, release digestive enzymes, & absorb food
 Asexual reproductive structure called sporangium and produces spores
 Sexual spore produced by conjugation when (+) hyphae & (-) fuse is called zygospore
 Zygospores can endure harsh environments until conditions improve & new
sporangium

The gametangia are cut off from the hyphae by complete septa. These gametangia may be
formed on hyphae of different mating types or on a single hypha. If both + and – mating
strains are present in a colony, they may grow together and their nuclei may fuse. Once the
haploid nuclei have fused, forming diploid zygote nuclei, the area where the fusion has taken
place develops into an often massive and elaborate zygosporangium. A zygosporangium may
contain one or more diploid nuclei and acquires a thick
 Zygomycetes form characteristic resting structures, called zygosporangia, which contain
one or more zygotic nuclei.
 The hyphae of zygomycetes are multinucleate, with septa only where gametangia or
sporangia are separated.
Division/Phylum Ascomycota
Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi. They are the largest phylum of Fungi,
with over 64,000 species. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus" ("sac" or
"wineskin"), a microscopic sexual structure in which non-motile spores, called ascospores,
are formed. However, some species of the Ascomycota are asexual, meaning that they do not
have a sexual cycle and thus do not form asci or ascospores.
 Includes yeast, cup fungi, truffles, powdery mildew, and morels
 Sac Fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually
 Yeast reproduce asexually by budding (form small, bud-like cells that break off and
make more yeasts)
 Asexual spores called conidia form on the tips of specialized hyphae called
conidiophores
 Ascocarp, specialized hyphae formed by parent fungi during sexual reproduction
 Ascus (sacs) within the ascocarp that form spores called
ascospores
The ascomycetes are a monophyletic group, i.e., all of its members
trace back to one common ancestor. This group is of particular
relevance to humans as sources for medicinally important
compounds, such as antibiotics and for making bread, alcoholic
beverages, and cheese, but also as pathogens of humans and plants.
Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewer's
yeast and baker's yeast, Dead Man's Fingers, and cup fungi. The
fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens (loosely termed
"ascolichens") such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota. There
are many plant-pathogenic ascomycetes, including apple scab, rice blast, the ergot fungi,
black knot, and the powdery mildews. Several species of ascomycetes are biological model
organisms in laboratory research. Most famously Neurospora crassa, several species of
yeasts, and Aspergillus species are used in many genetics and cell biology studies.
Penicillium species on cheeses and those producing antibiotics for treating bacterial infectious
diseases are examples of taxa that belong to the Ascomycota.
Basidiomycota
It includes three classes. It includes the highly evolved fungi. This group got its name from
the basidium, the club shaped structure formed at the tip of the reproductive hypha. Each
basidium bears four basidiospores at its tip. Large reproductive structures or fruiting bodies
called basidiocarps are produced in this group of fungi. Common examples for
basidiomycetes include mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs and bracket fungi. The mycelia of
this group are of two types. Primary and secondary. Primary mycelium multiplies by oidia,
conidia like spores and pycnidiospores.
 Includes mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, bracket fungi, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts
 Seldom reproduce asexually
 Basidiocarps made up of stalk called the stipe and a flattened cap
 Stipe may have a skirt like ring below cap called the annulus
 Gills are found on the underside of the cap and are lined with basidia
 Basidium – sexual reproductive structure that make basidiospores
 Basidiospores are released from the gills and germinate to form new hyphae and
mycelia
 Vegetative structures found below ground and include rhizoids (anchor and absorb
nutrients), hyphae, and mycelia
 Hyphae are septate,
 Vegetative body is dikaryophase.
 Distinct sex organs are absent. Fusion occurs between two basidiospores or between
two hyphal cells of primary mycelia. Advanced forms of basidiomycetes produce
fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Fruiting bodies vary in size from small
microscopic to large ones.
Mushrooms
Mushrooms belong to a group of organisms called
fungi.
• The life cycle of a fungus begins as a spore
(the reproductive body) that grows when
 conditions are just right. Out of the spore wall grows a hypha that looks like a clear,
microscopic fingertip.
• The body of the fungus is made up of a network of hyphal threads collectively called
the mycelium. The mycelium grows in soil or within dead wood or living organisms.
When growing conditions are favorable, the mycelium develops fruiting bodies,
appearing as what we recognize as mushrooms or as other forms.
Nutrition
Fungi find nutrition doing one of or a combination of four things:
1. Fungi act as parasites and feed on living things, usually doing some degree of harm.
Parasitic fungi use enzymes to break down tissues. Examples: the "Cauliflower
Mushroom" (Sparassis crispa).
2. Fungi form beneficial partnerships (symbiosis) with other organisms such as trees and
flowering plants:
a. Ectomycorrhizal fungi grow thick coats of mycelia around the rootlets of trees
and bring water and minerals from the soil into the roots. In return the host tree
supplies the fungus with sugars, vitamins and other root substances. Examples:
conifer trees, aspen and birch, and the "Dead Man's Foot" (Pisolithus
tinctorius) which helps many plants grow.
b. Endomycorrhizal fungi are microscopic soil fungi and penetrate the cells of
plant roots. This relationship may be beneficial to both parties or may be
harmful to one of them.
3. Fungi decompose dead plant and animal matter. As called saprophytes, they act as
recyclers of dead organic matter, obtaining food from this material. Hyphal tips
release enzymes that eventually decompose and release organic materials into the
surrounding environment. Saprophytic fungi appear on dead trees, logs, plant litter
such as leaves, and even dead insects and animals. Examples: "Gem-studded Puffball"
(Lycoperdon perlatum).
4. Fungi break down inorganic matter such as rocks in order to obtain nutrients. Fungal
hyphae, along with bacteria, dissolve rock to release nutrients.
Examples of Basidiomycota
Gilled Mushrooms
The basidiocarps of this group are large and conspicuous. They are the familiar mushrooms
and toadstools. The vegetative portion of the fungus exists as a mycelial network, which
grows saprobically beneath the substrate, often as mycorrhizae with trees. The basidia are
borne in a layer on the surface of "gills" which, in turn, are produced on the underside of
fleshy umbrella-like basidiocarps. The basidiospores are forcibly ejected from the basidium.
The basidiocarp consists of a stout stalk (stipe) bearing a circular cap (pileus) from which the
lamellae (gills) hang down. Most members of this order are saprobic but some are tree
parasites. It should be recognized that in the Agricales, the fruiting body (basidiocarp) is an
ephemeral structure usually lasting only a few days, whereas the mycelium, living on organic
matter in the soil, may last for years.
Life Cycle of Basidiomycota
The mycelium of the Basidiomycota is always septate and in most species passes through
three distinct phases -primary, secondary, and tertiary- during the life cycle of the fungus.
When it germinates, a basidiospore produces the primary mycelium. Initially the mycelium
may be multinucleate, but septa soon form and the mycelium is divided into monokaryotic
(uninucleate) cells. This septate mycelium grows by division of the terminal cell. Branches
do occur, and the mycelial mass can become very complex. Commonly the secondary
mycelium is produced by the fusion of primary mycelium from two different mating types
(plasmogamy).
The tertiary mycelium, which is also dikaryotic, arises directly from the secondary mycelium,
and forms the basidiocarp. The spore forming basidia are produced by the terminal cell on
millions of dikaryotic hyphae. In a typical mushroom, basidia are found on gills, under the
cup. Karyogamy occurs between the two haploid nuclei within a developing basidium. Then,
the diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. These nuclei then
migrate into four small extensions at the apical end of the basidium and are walled off to form
the four basidiospores.

Life Cycle of Typical Basidiomycota

Deuteromycota
They are the so-called “Fungi Imperfecti”. It is a group of fungi known only from their
asexual (anamorphic) or mycelial state. Their sexual (perfect or teleomorphic) states are either
unknown or may possibly be lacking altogether.
Economic importance of Fungi
Fungi are useful to mankind in many ways. These organisms play an important role in
medicine, agriculture and industry. They have harmful effects also.
Useful aspects of fungi
 The antibiotic Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by A. Fleming from the fungus
Penicillium notatum, which in 1940s emerged as a ‘wonder drug’ for the treatment of
bacterial diseases. Many other important antibiotics are produced by moulds.
 Many fungi are edible such as yeast, mushrooms, truffles, morels etc.
 Edible mushrooms contain proteins and vitamins. Certain species that are edible cultivated
commercially; Agaricus bisporus, A. arvensis, Volvariella volvacea and V. dispora.
 Brewing and baking industries rely heavily on yeast (Saccharomyces). Yeasts ferment
sugar solution into alcohol and carbondioxide. Alcohol is used in brewing industry and
CO2 in baking industry.
 The ‘biochemical genetics’ which later developed into the fascinating ‘molecular biology’
was founded by studies with Neurospora crassa, a fungus which was especially suited for
genetical analysis. Fungi like Neurospora and Aspergillus continue to be important
organisms studied in genetics.
 The dead cellulosic vegetation is decomposed into carbon and minerals by the
saprotrophic fungi and these elements are returned to the same environment from where
they were obtained. Thus, fungi maintain the carbon and mineral cycles in nature.
Harmful aspects of Fungi
• Fungi are great nuisance. They grow on everything from jam to leather and spoil them.
LSD (d- lysergic acid diethylamide) produced from the fungus ergot (Claviceps purpurea)
produces hallucinations. Hence called “hallucinogenic fungus” and has cause great
damage to youth by giving an unreal, extraordinary lightness and hovering sensation.
• The fungus Phytophthora infestans causes ‘late blight of potato’. In 1845 this resulted in
such a disaster that about one million people died of starvation and over 1.5 million
people fled to other countries since potato was the staple food of Ireland.
Symbiosis
Two important types of symbiotic union are made by fungi.
Lichens
They are symbiotic association found between algae and fungi. The alga is usually a green
alga or blue green alga. The fungus is an ascomycete or basidiomycete. It is believed that the
alga contributes organic food from photosynthesis and the fungus is able to absorb water and
mineral salts. The fungus can also conserve water and this enables some lichens to grow in
extreme dry conditions where no other plants can exist.
Lichens
 Symbiotic association between a sac fungus and a photosynthetic green algae or
cyanobacteria
 Both organisms benefit (algae makes food and fungus supplies moisture, shelter, and
anchorage)
 Grow on rocks, trees, buildings, etc. and help form soil
 Crustose lichens grow on rocks and trees; fructose lichens grow shrub-like; foliose
lichens grow mat-like on the soil
Mycorrhizae
These are symbiotic associations between a fungus partner and roots of higher plants. Most
land plants enter into this kind of relationship with soil fungi. The fungus may form a sheath
around the center of the root (an ectotrophic mycorrhiza) or may penetrate the host tissue
(an endotrophic mycorrhiza). The former type is found in many forest trees such as conifers,
beech and oak and involves the fungi of the division basidiomycetes. The fungus receives
carbohydrates and vitamins from the tree and in return breaks down proteins of the soil humus
to amino acids which can be absorbed and utilized by the plant. In addition the fungus
provides a greater surface area for absorption of ions such as phosphates.
 Kingdom Plantae
The evolution of modern plants occurred in several stages:
i. Plants evolved from plant-like Protoctists.
ii. Inhabiting terrestrial habitats posed several problems in the evolution of
plants.

Terrestrial plants

Non-Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Seedless Plants Seed Plants

Naked Seed Plants Enclosed Seed

Plants

Monocots Dicots

Evolutionary differences of plants

 Non-vascular plants (e.g., mosses) have no system for transporting water or nutrients.
 Vascular plants have a system through which they can transport water and nutrients
throughout the plant. This allowed the plants to be taller and live further from water.
 Seedless plants (e.g., ferns) have a vascular system but reproduce using spores.
 Seed plants reproduce using seeds
 Gymnosperms (e.g., pine) have seeds that are not enclosed.
 Angiosperms (i.e., flowering plants) have seeds that are enclosed, usually in a fruit. This
is, by far, the most successful group of plants. Angiosperms can be arranged in two
groups:
 Monocots (e.g., grasses, palms)
 Dicots (e.g., trees, most common plants)
Basic characteristics of Kingdom Plantae
 Plants are multicellular, autotrophic, eukaryotes.
 Possess cell walls made of a carbohydrate called cellulose and store food in the form of
starch.
 The cell wall gives the plant cell strength and remains after the cell dies. In trees we call
this wood.
 Have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll and other pigments.
 Most plants are terrestrial although there are some exceptions.
Plant life cycles have two alternating phases, a haploid (n) phase and a diploid (2n) phase.
The diploid phase is called the sporophyte and produces spores, while the haploid is called
the gametophyte and produces gametes. The term diploid means having a complete set of
chromosomes. Haploid means having half a set of chromosomes.
Bryophytes
There are fossil records of blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) living 3000 million years ago and
many eukaryotic organisms have existed for more than 1000 million years. However the first
organisms to colonize the land are primitive plants did so only 420 million years ago. The
greatest simple problem to overcome in making the transition from water to land is that of
desiccation. Any plant not protected in some way, for example, by a waxy cuticle, will tend to
dry out and die very soon.
Salient features of Bryophyta
Bryophyta are the simplest group of land plants. They are relatively poorly adapted to life on
land, so they are mainly confined to damp, shady places. These are terrestrial non-vascular
plants (no vascular tissue namely xylem and phloem) which still require moist environment
to complete their life-cycle. Hence these are called amphibians of plant kingdom. They are
more advanced than algae in that they develop special organs. The male sex organ is called
antheridium and the female sex organ is called archegonium. Bryophytes show distinct
alternation of generation in their life cycles. Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts and
hornworts.
Distinguishing features of Bryophytes
1. They are small terrestrial plants.
2. They are without a distinct root system but are attached to the substratum by means of thin,
filamentous outgrowth of the thallus called rhizoids.
3. Water and mineral salts can be absorbed by the whole surface of the plant body, including
the rhizoids. So, the main function of rhizoids is anchorage, unlike true roots (true roots also
possess vascular tissues, as do true stems and leaves). Thus the “stems” and “leaves” found in
some Bryophytes are not homologous with stems and leaves of vascular plants. The plant
body is called thallus.
4. They do not possess true vascular tissues.
5. Male sex organ is called antheridium and female sex organ is called archegonium.
6. Sex organs are multi-cellular and they have a protective jacket layer of sterile cells.
7. Sexual reproduction is of oogamous type.
8. Bryophytes show distinct alternation of gametophytic generation with sporophytic
generation.
9. Gametophyte generation is dominant and independent.
10. Sporophyte generation is very small, microscopic and dependent on the gametophyte
phase.
Alternation of Generations
In common with all land plants and some advanced algae such as Laminaria, bryophytes
exhibit alternation of generations. Two types of organism, a haploid gametophyte generation
and a diploid sporophyte generation, alternate in the life cycle. The cycle is summarized in
the fig below.

The haploid generation is called the gametophyte because it undergoes sexual reproduction to
produce gametes. Production of gametes involves mitosis, so the gametes are also haploid.
The gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote which grows into the next generation, the diploid
sporophyte generation. It is called sporophyte because it undergoes asexual reproduction to
produce spores.
Production of spores involves meiosis, so that there is a return to the haploid condition. The
haploid spores give rise to the gametophyte generation. One of the two generations is always
more conspicuous and occupies a greater proportion of the life cycle. This generation is called
as the dominant generation.
In all Bryophytes the gametophyte generation is dominant. In all other land plants, the
sporophyte generation is dominant. It is customary to place the dominant generation in the top
half of the life cycle diagram. The figure given above summarizes the life cycle of a typical
Bryophyte. One point that must be remembered here is that gamete production involves
mitosis and not meiosis as in animals. Meiosis occurs before the production of spores.
Classification
Bryophyta is divided into three major classes.
Seedless Nonvascular Plants
 Includes mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
 Lack vascular tissue (xylem & phloem) to carry water & food
 Have a Sporophyte & Gametophyte stage known as alternation of generations
 Gametophyte is dominant stage
 Reproduce by spores
Division Bryophyta
Mosses:
 Small, nonvascular land plants
 No true roots, stems, or leaves
Class Musci
 Most common bryophyte
 Grow on moist areas (brick walls, as thick mats on forest floors, and on the shaded side of
trees)
 Some can survive periodic dry spells & revive when H2O becomes available
 Must grow close together and must have H2O to complete their life cycle
 Sperm swims to egg through drops of water during fertilization
 H2O moves cell-to-cell by osmosis
 Sphagnum moss is known for its moisture holding capacity, absorbing up to 20 times its
dry weight with water.
LIFE CYCLE OF MOSSES:
 Mosses alternate between a haploid (n) gametophyte stage and a diploid (2n) sporophyte
stage
 Gametophyte is the dominant generation
Moss Gametophyte Moss Sporophyte

 Called alternation of generations

 The haploid gametophyte stage contains half the chromosome number and produces
gametes (egg and sperm)
 Gametophyte stage is dominant in the moss's life cycle
 Gametophytes are photosynthetic and have root-like rhizoids
 The diploid sporophyte has a complete set of chromosomes and produces spores by
meiosis
 Sporophyte of a moss is smaller than, and attached to the gametophyte
 Sporophytes lack chlorophyll and depend on the photosynthetic gametophyte for food
 Sporophyte has a long, slender stalk topped with a capsule
 Capsule forms haploid (n) spores
Moss
Capsules
Sexual Reproduction in Moss:
 Mosses produce 2 kinds of gametes (egg and sperm)
 Gametes of bryophytes are surrounded by a jacket of sterile cells that
keep the cells from drying out
 Female gametes or eggs are larger with more cytoplasm and are
immobile
 Flagellated sperm must swim to the egg through water droplets for fertilization
 Moss gametes form in separate reproductive structures on the Gametophyte; Archegonium
and Antheridium
Archegonium Antheridium

 Each Archegonium forms one egg, but each Antheridium forms many sperm
 Fertilization can occur only after rain when the Gametophyte is covered with water
 Sperms swim to the egg by following a chemical trail released by the egg
 A zygote (fertilized egg) forms that undergoes mitosis and becomes a Sporophyte
 Cells inside mature Sporophyte capsule undergoes meiosis and form haploid spores
 Haploid spores germinate into juvenile plants called protonema
 Protonema begin the Gametophyte generation

Protonema
 Spores are carried by wind & sprout on moist soil forming a new Gametophyte

Asexual reproduction in Mosses:

 Asexual reproduction in moss may occur by fragmentation or gemmae
 Pieces of a Gametophyte can break off & form new moss plants (fragmentation)
 Gemmae are tiny, cup shaped structures on the Gametophytes
 Raindrops separate gemmae from the parent plant so they can spread & form new
Gametophytes
Gemmae cups

Uses for Moss:

 Help decomposer dead logs
 Serve as pioneer plants on bare rock or ground
 Help prevent erosion
 Provide shelter for insects & small animals
 Used as nesting materials by birds & mammals
 Sphagnum or peat moss forms peat bogs (wet ecosystem)
 Peat is burned as fuel in some areas

Division Hepatophyta

Liverworts:

 Nonvascular
 Undergo alternation of generations with Sporophyte attached to Gametophyte
 Gametophytes are green & leafy and the dominant generation

Liverwort

 Need abundant water for fertilization

  Reproduce by spores
 Grow on moist rocks or soil
 Reproduce asexually by gemmae and by growing new branches

Division Anthocerophyta

Hornworts:

 Small, nonvascular bryophytes

 Gametophyte leafy like liverworts
 Archegonia & antheridia form inside the plant
 After fertilization, zygotes develop into long, horn-shaped Sporophytes
 Horn-shaped Sporophytes capable of photosynthesis so not completely dependent on
Gametophyte

Hornwort
Seedless Vascular Plants
 Includes club mosses, whisk ferns, horsetails, & ferns
 Have specialized vascular tissues (xylem & phloem) to transport H2O, food, etc.
 Have a Sporophyte & Gametophyte stage known as alternation of generations
 Sporophyte is the dominant stage
 Reproduce by spores
Division Psilophyta
Whisk Ferns:
 Photosynthetic, aerial stem forks repeatedly to form a small twiggy bush
 No true roots, stems, or leaves
 Have horizontal, underground stems called rhizomes
 Root-like structures called rhizoids anchor plant
 Reproduce by spores & vegetatively from rhizomes
 Only 2 living genera
Whisk Fern
Division Lycophyta
Club Mosses:
 Low growing plants resembling pine trees
 Have a club-shaped spore producing structure

Club Moss
 Some like Lycopodium contain chemicals that burn quickly
 Resurrection moss is green (after rains) when moist and brown when dry.
Resurrection Plant

Division Sphenophyta
Horsetails:
  Equisetum called scouring rush is the only living species
 Photosynthetic aerial stems & underground rhizomes
 Stems contain silica & were once used to scrub pots
 Reproduce by means of spores made in small cones at the tip of branches
 In prehistoric times, some plants of this family grew to be large trees
 Found in wetlands

Horsetail
Division Pterophyta
Ferns:
 Largest group of living seedless vascular plants
 Live in moist habitats
 Alternates between dominant Sporophyte stage & Gametophyte stage
 Sporophyte stage has true roots, stems, & leaves
 Produce spores on the underside of leaves

 Leaves are called fronds & are attached by a stem-like petiole

FERNS
Fern Life Cycle:
 Spores produced on underside of fronds in clusters of sporangia called sori
 Spores undergo meiosis, are spread by wind, & germinate on moist soil to form
prothallus
 Prothallus begins the Gametophyte stage
 Mature Gametophytes are small, heart-shaped structures that live only a short time
 Male antheridia & female archegonia grow on the prothalli
 Sperm must swim to the egg to fertilize it & developing embryo becomes the
Sporophyte generation
 Newly forming fronds are called fiddleheads & uncurl

Uses for Ferns:

 Prevent erosion
 Fiddleheads serve as food
 Ornamental plants
 Formed coal millions of years ago
.

iv. The success of angiosperms is due to the flower and the fruit as well as
their co-evolution with insects to improve pollination.
 (1) Flowers increase the efficiency of pollination.
(a) Pollinators locate flowers odor, shape, color, and
texture. The pollen is also a food source for bees which attracts them to the flower. While
collecting pollen, bees get it on their legs and carry it to another plant. Some flowers are
pollinated by insects such as butterflies and moths which have mouthparts specialized for
collecting nectar.
(b) Flowers are often shaped so that non-pollinators cannot
reach nectar or pollen. For example, hummingbird-pollinated flowers are long, and shaped
like the bill of a hummingbird.
(c) Wind-pollinated flowers are small, have no petals and
little color and do not produce nectar.
(2) Adaptations of seeds help in their dispersal.
(a) Some seeds are carried by wind or water, while others
stick to the fur of animals or are eaten.
(3) Fruit is a very efficient way of dispersing seeds.
(a) Fruit is very attractive to animals and when they eat the
fruit, they also ingest the seeds. The indigestible seeds pass through the animal’s digestive
tract and are deposited elsewhere.
Kingdom Animalia

1. General Measures of Complexity

a. Embryonic development
i. The zygote becomes an adult through embryonic development.
ii. The cells of the zygote divide to form a hollow ball of cells called a
blastula. This ball folds inward to form a gastrula during gastrulation. The opening of the
gastrula becomes either the mouth or anus.
b. Germ layers
i. All cells of the adult organism can be traced to one of the three germ
layers. Some animals have only the inner and outer germ layers but more complex animals
have mesoderm as well.
(1) Ectoderm - the inner layer gives rise to the outer covering of
the animal (skin, hair, nails, feathers, scales) and the nervous system.
(2) Mesoderm - gives rise to muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, kidney, reproductive system
(3) Endoderm - gives rise to digestive tract and associated organs
c. Body cavity
i. The evolution of a body cavity is important because:
(1) Circulation - fluids moving in the cavity function as a
circulatory system
(2) Movement - fluid in the cavity makes the body rigid
(3) Organ function - organs can function without being deformed
(4) Food movement, digestion and waste removal - are not limited
by movement of the animal
ii. In terms of body cavity, animals are in one of three categories:
(1) Acoelomates - have no body cavity.
(2) Pseudocoelomates - have a body cavity partially surrounded
by mesoderm.
(3) Coelomates - have a body cavity completely surrounded by
mesoderm.
d. Symmetry
i. Asymmetry - The simplest animals have no symmetry.
ii. Spherical - No animals possess spherical symmetry.
iii. Radial - The axis of symmetry goes through the center of the animal
from top to bottom. These animals are more complex than those with no symmetry. No one
end leads.
iv. Bilateral - The axis of symmetry is through the middle of the animal
from head to tail. Bilateral organisms exhibit right and left halves, mirror images to each
other.
2. Evolutionary trends in Kingdom Animalia
a. Symmetry, germ layers, cephalization, digestive tract, reproduction,
circulatory system, behaviour, segmentation, body size
Phylum Porifera - sponges
a. General
1. Sponges are the simplest of animals, lacking germ layers, symmetry, and tissues.
2. The body is little more than a mass of specialized cells, not not organized into tissues.
3. Adults are sessile and remain anchored to the ocean floor or lake bottoms
Nutrition
They gain nutrients by filtering particles out of the water.
Reproduction
Asexual reproduction by budding is common.
Sponges are hermaphrodites but produce eggs and sperm at different times to avoid self-
fertilization. This is called sequential hermaphroditism.
Phylum Cnidaria - jellyfish, sea anemones and corals
a. General
i. Although starfish and sea urchins also display radial symmetry as
adults, they are not in this phylum.
ii. Have only two germ layers which give rise to true tissues in the adult
body.
iii. Have two body forms
(1) Polyp: cylindrical, generally attached to a substrate (e.g.,
anemone)
(2) Medusa: umbrella-shaped, free floating, gelatinous (e.g.,
jellyfish)
b. Nutrition
i. Carnivores which capture food with tentacles surrounding the mouth.
Cnidocytes (stinging cells) on the tentacles paralyze prey which is then brought into the
mouth.
ii. Food is digested in a gut (gastrovascular cavity) and the resulting
particles are absorbed by cells. This allows the animal to digest something larger than its
own cells. The extracellular digestion of food is an evolutionary development.
iii. The single opening (mouth/anus) is a two-way digestive system.
c. Reproduction
i. Separate sexes jellyfish but lower cnidarians like the hydra show
asexual (budding) as well.
5. Phylum Platyhelminthes - flatworms
a. General
i. Flatworms (e.g., planaria) can be found in marine or aquatic
environments, as well as damp terrestrial habitats.
ii. Bilateral symmetry allows both the specialization of different body
parts and cephalization. Cephalization allows animals to move through and experience their
environment head first. Having sensory equipment at the anterior end is more efficient for
seeking food and avoiding danger.
iii. This phylum shows the first appearance of organs - a group of tissues
that function as one unit.
 iv. These acoelomates have a thin body to allow diffusion of gases and
nutrients
b. Nutrition
i. The digestive system is branched with a single opening (two-way
digestive system).
c. Nervous system
i. Primitive eye spots allow planarians to distinguish light and dark.
ii. Beginnings of cephalization.
d. Reproduction
i. Sexual hermaphrodites with the reproductive system only appearing
during mating season.
ii. Asexual reproduction can result if the animal is split in two.
6. Phylum Nematoda
a. Roundworms that live in soil and water. Most are harmless but some are
parasitic.
b. As pseudocoelomates, they have a body cavity located between endoderm and
mesoderm.
c. Nutrition:
i. Having a separate mouth and anus creates a one-way digestive system.
d. Reproduction:
i. Sexual reproduction with separate sexes.
7. Phylum Mollusca
a. General
i. Second largest phylum of animals and second most successful land
animals, next to insects. There are more terrestrial mollusks than terrestrial vertebrates.
ii. These coelomates have a body cavity (coelom) that is completely
surrounded by mesoderm.
(1) The coelom allows space for more complex internal organs, a
digestive tract that can be longer than the animal, and a larger reproductive system.
iii. All mollusks, except for the bivalves, show clear cephalization. The
heavy shell makes these animals largely sessile so cephalization is not required.
b. Nutrition
i. The longer digestive tract with specialized organs allows better
digestion and more diverse food.
ii. Gastropods scrape food from surfaces. Bivalves use the gills to filter
food particles from the water. Cephalopods are predators with a hard beak for tearing and
biting.
c. Circulation
i. A large body cavity requires the development of a circulatory system.
A fluid (often blood) is circulated by the contraction of a muscular heart (or hearts). Blood
carries nutrients and oxygen to cells and carries wastes and carbon dioxide away.
(1) In a closed circulatory system, a network of vessels carries
blood to all parts of the body.
 (2) In an open circulatory system, blood circulates freely in the
body cavity. As blood is pumped into body spaces, the organs are constantly bathed in it
ii. Only cephalopods have a closed circulatory system with a heart and
blood vessels. The other mollusks have an open circulatory system.
d. Nervous system
i. The nervous system is highly developed in cephalopods because they
are predators. They have a highly developed brain which allows them to learn and solve
problems. Their image-forming eyes gives them quite good vision.
e. Reproduction
i. Most mollusks show sexual reproduction with separate sexes.
ii. Young care is highly developed in the octopus.
8. Phylum Annelida (little rings) - earthworms, leeches, some marine worms
a. General
i. Segmented worms (e.g., earthworms) have a body built from a series
of similar segments.
(1) The evolutionary advantage is that by changing one segment, it
can create a new body part without affecting other parts.
(2) Although segmentation is continued through all other phyla
(including humans) it is not always obvious. An example of segmentation in humans is seen
in muscles and in the spine.
b. Nutrition
i. One-way digestive system.
c. Circulation
i. Closed circulatory system. There is no real heart but the muscular
sections of some blood vessels are the beginnings of a more advanced system.
d. Nervous system
i. Simple brain and single nerve cord with short branches into each
segment.
e. Reproduction
i. Some annelids show separate sexes while some are hermaphrodites.
9. Phylum Arthropoda
a. General
i. Arthropods are found in all habitats and are the most numerous and
diverse of invertebrates.
ii. Jointed appendages are a major advancement because they can be
specialized for different functions.
iii. The exoskeleton is rigid and made of chitin. It provides protection and
limits water loss. The exoskeleton is strong but its weight limits the size of arthropods. To
become larger, animals require a strong, flexible endoskeleton. The problem with the
exoskeleton is that the animal must molt to grow.
b. Adaptations for success
i. Segments have specialized functions.
ii. Well defined head with excellent sensory apparatus.
 iii. Jointed appendages. Some are sensory while some are for feeding,
manipulating, and moving.
iv. Exoskeleton.
v. Waste from the blood is excreted as solid crystals.
c. Digestion
i. Arthropods show a wide variety of feeding strategies that are
dependant on their feeding appendages
d. Circulation and gas exchange
i. Circulation is open.
ii. Arachnids exchange gases through a simple lung. Crustaceans have
gills at the base of some legs. Insects are quite active and so need a more sophisticated
system of gas exchange. They have a system of tubes which open to the outside through
which gases can travel.
e. Nervous system
i. Well developed overall.
(1) Crustaceans are able to detect tiny vibrations in the water and
have compound eyes able to form crude images.
(2) Insects have highly developed sensory gear and most can
detect stimuli outside the human range of detection. Most have a few simple eyes and a pair
of compound eyes which enable them to form images. They cannot focus well but are
excellent for detecting movement. Some insects have tiny hairs which detect air vibrations.
f. Reproduction
i. Separate sexes.
ii. Pheromones are chemicals released by one individual to affect the
behaviour of another individual. Sex pheromones are used to attract a mate.
g. Additional adaptations of insects
i. Camouflage and coloration
a. Hiding - blend into the environment to evade predators or hide from prey
b. Attracting attention - bright colors are used to warn potential predators
c. Mimicry - harmless insects mimic the coloration of a harmful one to avoid
being eaten.
ii. Social behaviour.
(1) Termites, bees, ants, and some wasps have complex social
systems with specific division of labour, making the colony more efficient by having
individuals who specialize in particular tasks.
10. Phylum Chordata
a. General
i. Unlike the invertebrates, all chordates are in the same phylum.
ii. Four characteristic features (not present in all adult chordates):
(1) Hollow, dorsal nerve cord
(2) Flexible rod (notochord) along the back of the embryo.
Muscles attach to the rod providing flexible locomotion and leads to the possibility of much
large animals. This becomes the backbone in most Chordates.
(3) Pharyngeal (gill) slits located behind the mouth
 (4) Post-anal tail
b. Subphylum Vertebrata
i. Vertebrates possess a backbone. The notochord becomes surrounded
and replaced by a bony vertebral column which protects the dorsal nerve cord. The vertebral
column allows the body to flex and provides attachment sites for muscles as well as
surrounding and protecting the nerve cord.
ii. The endoskeleton is made of bone which is much stronger than chitin.
(1) All vertebrates have a similar skeletal plan.
(2) Fused bones form a skull to protect the brain.
(3) Vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
(4) Ribs extend from some vertebrae to protect internal organs.
(5) Most vertebrates have two pairs of limbs.
iii. There is a specialized outer covering of the body made of either skin,
feathers, hair, scales.
iv. Vertebrates have a large coelom containing vital organs.
v. Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system.
vi. The sexes are usually separate and reproduction is usually sexual.
c. Evolutionary trends in the vertebrates
i. Vertebrates have evolved from being totally dependent on water to
having a terrestrial lifestyle.
ii. Increasingly complex heart. Vertebrate hearts contain muscular
chambers called atria (singular, atrium) and ventricles. Contraction of a chamber forces
blood out. The atrium functions to receive blood that is returning to the heart. When it
contracts, blood is pumped into the ventricle. When a ventricle contracts, blood is pumped
away from the heart to the body, lungs, or gills.
(1) Circulatory System of Fish
(a) Fish have a two-chambered heart with one atrium and
one ventricle. The gills contain many capillaries for gas exchange, so the blood pressure is
low after going through the gills. Low-pressure blood from the gills then goes directly to the
body, which also has a large number of capillaries.
(b) The activity level of fish is limited due to the low rate
of blood flow to the body.
(2) Circulatory System of Amphibians
(a) Amphibians have a three-chambered heart with two
atria and one ventricle. Blood from the lungs (pulmonary circuit) goes to one atrium while
blood from the body (systemic circuit) goes to the other atrium. Both atria empty into the
ventricle where the blood is mixed.
(b) The advantage of this system is that there is higher
pressure in vessels that lead to both the lungs and body.
(3) Circulatory System of Reptiles
(a) In most reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided. This
reduces the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle.
(4) Circulatory System of Birds and Mammals
 (a) Birds and mammals (also crocodilians) have a four-
chambered heart which acts as two separate pumps. After passing through the body, blood
is pumped under high pressure to the lungs. Upon returning from the lungs, it is pumped
under high pressure to the body.
(b) The high rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the
body enables birds and mammals to maintain high activity levels. Also, the mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood is prevented.
(c) The increased efficiency of the four-chambered heart
permitted birds and mammals to become endotherms. The oxygen demand of providing the
energy necessary to maintain a relatively high body temperature could not be met by an open
circulatory system.
iii. Increased size and complexity of the cerebrum (for learning and
complex behaviour).
iv. Change from a cartilaginous to a bony skeleton.
d. Class Agnatha - Lamprey eels.
i. Have a minimal skeleton made of cartilage but lack jaws and paired
fins.
ii. These animals take water in and out through the gills.

e. Class Chondrichthyes - Sharks and rays

i. General
(1) They have a superior, streamlined design for swimming.
Immoveable, paired fins increase propulsion, stabilization and directional movement.
(2) The skeleton is made of cartilage.
ii. Digestion
(1) Development of the moveable jaw allowed these animals to eat
larger prey and become top predators. Teeth are sharp and pointed backward.
iii. Nervous system
(1) Very keen sense of smell. (can detect a drop of blood in 100 L
of sea water)
(2) The lateral line - a series of small pits along the animal’s body
- allow the animals to detect vibrations in the water. The sound receptors of terrestrial
vertebrates may have evolved from these organs.
iv. Reproduction
(1) Fertilization is internal which is advanced for a fish. Eggs
generally develop inside the female’s body, and young are born alive.
f. Class Osteichthyes - bony fishes
i. General
1. The bony fishes developed a heavy skeleton made completely of bone. A backbone
surrounds the spinal cord and the brain is fully encased in a protective skull.
2. Their swim bladder is a gas-filled sac that allows the animal to float at any depth in
the water (sharks must move through the water to avoid sinking).
3. Highly mobile, paired fins are more maneuverable.
 4. The body is covered with a layer of mucous to facilitate gliding through the water
and to protect from parasites.
ii. Circulation
1. Gills extract dissolved oxygen from the water around them. Water is brought in
through the mouth and passes over filaments rich in blood vessels which provide a
huge surface area. Water is then forced out slits in the side of the throat.
2. Two chambered heart (See “Evolutionary trends in the vertebrates” above).
iii. Nervous system
(1) The lateral line is present.
(2) The nervous system is quite developed to allow for some
complex behaviors and movement.
(3) Although their vision is not great, they have quite a good sense
of smell.
iv. Reproduction
(1) Separate sexes with mostly external fertilization.

g. Class Amphibia - frogs, toads and salamanders

i. Amphibians were the first to invade the land. They are the first
tetrapods. The juvenile phase of the life cycle is dependent on water and gas exchange is
through gills. The adult phase is less dependent on water and gas exchange is through lungs.
ii. Adaptations to live on land
(1) Legs for movement and to support body weight.
(2) Lungs replaced gills because the thin filaments of the gills
would clump together out of water.
(3) Improved heart to deliver more oxygen to walking muscles.
(4) Eggs are laid in water to prevent them drying out.
(5) Most species live close to water to prevent the skin from drying
out.
iii. Circulation and gas exchange
(1) Amphibians have a three-chambered heart (See “Evolutionary
trends in the vertebrates” above).
(2) Amphibians have small, inefficient lungs and most species also
get some oxygen by diffusion through the skin. Because the skin is used in gas exchange it
must remain moist, so amphibians cannot venture far into very dry habitats.
iv. Reproduction
(1) External fertilization requires that sperm swim through water to
the egg so the animals must stay in or near water for reproduction.
(2) The eggs do not have an outer covering or shell and therefore
are not protected against drying out.
h. Class Reptilia (repare - to creep) - turtles, crocodiles, alligators, lizards, and
snakes.
i. Adaptations to a fully terrestrial lifestyle
 (1) Limbs are directed downward, bent more under the body to
raise it up off the ground. This improved support enables reptiles to move more easily and
even to run.
(2) The lungs and heart are more efficient.
(3) The skin is waterproof and made from the protein keratin - the
same protein in human hair and fingernails and in bird feathers.
(4) Fertilization is internal and the amniotic egg is encased in a
water-tight, leathery shell covering.
(5) Reptiles are ectotherms (get their heat from outside their
body) and regulate body temperature by behavior (e.g., basking in the sun or hiding in
shade).
ii. Circulation
(1) Partially separated ventricle (See “Evolutionary trends in the
vertebrates” above).
(2) Reptiles have more efficient lungs than amphibians. Reptiles
do not need to use their skin for gas exchange because the lungs are sufficient. They have a
thick, scaly skin with keratin that makes it impermeable to water and gases.
iii. Nervous system
(1) Most have a good sense of smell but poor eyesight.
(2) Most do not have hearing as we think of it. They have
membranes on the sides of the head to detect vibrations.
iv. Reproduction
(1) Internal fertilization is necessary because reproduction occurs
on land. The sperm must be deposited inside the female. Internal fertilization allows animals
to mate without having to be in water.
(2) The eggs are encased in leathery shells to protect them from
drying out. This eliminates the need for a swimming larval stage.
(3) The eggs are encased in leathery shells to prevent drying out.
(a) The amniotic egg has several membranes which make it
a valuable adaptation for a terrestrial lifestyle. The egg has structures to surround and protect
the embryo, provide food, store wastes, and allow oxygen to enter, but retain water.
(4) Most reptiles do not care for their young.
i. Class Aves - birds
i. General
(1) Scales on their legs and feet and claws on their toes are
reptilian characteristics. These are made of keratin.
(2) The beak and feet are adapted to suit the bird’s lifestyle.
(3) Their success is derived from the development of the feather
which allows them to fly. Feathers contain the same protein as reptilian skin. They insulate
against heat loss and allow birds to be endotherms, meaning they regulate their body
temperature, allowing them to be active when the environmental temperature is low.
(4) Anatomical features related to flight
(a) Forelimbs have developed into wings and feathers
provide lift.
 (b) The bony or cartilaginous tail has been replaced by
feathers.
(c) The skeleton is made of hollow bones to reduce weight.
(d) The breastbone is enlarged for attachment of strong
flight muscles.
(e) Females have only one ovary.
(f) Birds have no teeth.
(g) Birds have efficient breathing that allows a one-way
flow of air through their lungs. As a result, the lungs receive fresh air during inhalation and
again during exhalation. During inhalation, the air sacs fill; during exhalation, they empty.
Air passes through the lungs in only one direction but does so during inhalation and
exhalation both.
ii. Digestion
(1) Birds eat small amounts of food often and digestion is very fast
to minimize the weight during flight. Birds must consume enough food to provide the energy
needed for endothermy and flight.
iii. Circulation and gas exchange
(1) Birds and mammals have a double circulatory system with 2
atria and 2 ventricles. The double circulatory system is required for the high activity levels
seen in birds and mammals as well as being an endotherm.
(2) Birds have a four chambered heart (See “Evolutionary trends in
the vertebrates” above).
iv. Nervous system
(1) Highly developed with excellent vision. This is required for
flight.
(2) Smell and taste are not as good although hearing is excellent.
(3) The well-developed cerebrum allows for complex behaviour
and learning. The cerebellum is also well-developed to allow the complex muscle
movements required for flight.
v. Reproduction
(1) Birds have internal fertilization and produce hard-shelled,
amniotic eggs.
(2) Birds exhibit complex behavior including parental care. (scrub
hens in Malaysia and Australia build a nest 15' high and 40' in diameter out of vegetation,
sand, and earth; bower bird)
j. Class Mammalia - mammals
i. General
(1) All mammals have hair. Made of keratin, hair comes in many
forms and has many functions.
(a) It insulates the body against heat loss. Being
endothermic allows activity at any time of day or night in many climates.
(i) Note that marine mammals have blubber in
addition to or instead of hair. The lack of hair minimizes drag in the water.
(b) It provides camouflage.
 (c) Whiskers function as sensory structures.
(d) It may serve as defensive weapons as in porcupines.
(2) All female mammals have mammary glands.
(a) They produce milk for the young. Young are born
relatively helpless but are fed milk and cared for by one or both parents. Most young are
born live.
(b) Milk is 95% water but is rich in fat, sugar, protein.
(3) Mammals walk more efficiently than reptiles because their legs
are positioned further under their body.
(4) Almost all large land vertebrates are mammals, although the
typical mammal is not large - 3200 of 4100 species are rodents, bats, shrews, or moles.
ii. Digestion
(1) Mammals have a diversity of teeth for different kinds of foods.
Fish, amphibians, and reptiles have teeth that are all similar.
iii. Circulation and gas exchange
(1) Mammals have a four chambered heart (See “Evolutionary
trends in the vertebrates” above).
(2) More efficient breathing results from the diaphragm muscle.
iv. Nervous system
(1) Mammals have well-developed sense organs and a large brain
with a large cerebrum.
v. Reproduction
(1) Monotremes (one hole) are egg-laying mammals which
include the duck-billed platypus and spiny anteater. Unlike other mammals, monotremes lay
eggs which the female incubates. Milk is secreted to the surface of the skin so they lack
nipples.
(2) Marsupials (marsupium, L - pouch) are pouched-mammals
which includes opossums, kangaroos, and koalas in addition to some mouse and wolf
relatives in Australia. Marsupial young begin development in the female’s body. They are
born very immature (in as few as eight days after fertilization) and crawl into the mother’s
pouch. There they attach to nipples and continue to develop.
(3) Placental mammals give birth to well-developed young.
Nutrients, water, and oxygen pass from mother to fetus while wastes pass from fetus to
mother. This exchange is possible because the blood of the fetus and of the mother are in
close contact in the placenta. Placental mammals are born relatively mature because the well-
developed placenta enables them to remain within the mother for an extended period of
development.
(4) The length of young care is related to the complexity of
behaviour in adults.