Structured Query Language

(SQL)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 SQL
 Data Definition
 Basic Query Structure
 Set Operations
 Aggregate Functions
 Null Values
 Nested Subqueries
 Complex Queries
 Views
 Modification of the Database
 Joined Relations**

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 History
 IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R project at the
IBM San Jose Research Laboratory
 Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)
 ANSI and ISO standard SQL:
 SQL-86
 SQL-89
 SQL-92
 SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)
 SQL:2003
 Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92 features, plus
varying feature sets from later standards and special proprietary
features.
 Not all examples here may work on your particular system.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Definition Language
Allows the specification of:

 The schema for each relation, including attribute types.

 Integrity constraints
 Authorization information for each relation.
 Non-standard SQL extensions also allow specification of
 The set of indices to be maintained for each relations.
 The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Schema Used in Example

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Create Table Construct
 An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
 r is the name of the relation
 each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r
 Di is the data type of attribute Ai

 Example:
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Types in SQL
 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.
 varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum
length n.
 int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
 smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer
domain type).
 numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits,
with n digits to the right of decimal point.
 float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n
digits.
 More are covered in Chapter 4.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraints on Tables

 not null
 primary key (A1, ..., An )

Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for branch

.
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30) not null,
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name))

primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures

not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in
SQL-89

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Insertion and Deletion of Tuples

 Newly created table is empty

 Add a new tuple to account
insert into account
values ('A-9732', 'Perryridge', 1200)

 Insertion fails if any integrity constraint is violated

 Delete all tuples from account
delete from account
Note: Will see later how to delete selected tuples

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Drop and Alter Table Constructs
 The drop table command deletes all information about the dropped
relation from the database.
 The alter table command is used to add attributes to an existing
relation:
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and D
is the domain of A.
 All tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for the
new attribute.
 The alter table command can also be used to drop attributes of a
relation:
alter table r drop A
where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
 Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Basic Query Structure
 A typical SQL query has the form:

select A1, A2, ..., An

from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P

 Ai represents an attribute
 Ri represents a relation
 P is a predicate.

 The result of an SQL query is a relation.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The select Clause
 The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query
 corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra
 Example: find the names of all branches in the loan relation:
select branch_name
from loan
 In the relational algebra, the query would be:
branch_name (loan)
 NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper- or
lower-case letters.)
 E.g. Branch_Name ≡ BRANCH_NAME ≡ branch_name
 Some people use upper case wherever we use bold font.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The select Clause (Cont.)
 SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.
 To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after
select.
 Find the names of all branches in the loan relations, and remove
duplicates
select distinct branch_name
from loan

 The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed.

select all branch_name

from loan

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The select Clause (Cont.)
 An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
select *
from loan
 The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the
operation, +, –, , and /, and operating on constants or attributes of
tuples.
 E.g.:
select loan_number, branch_name, amount  100
from loan

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The from Clause
 The from clause lists the relations involved in the query
 Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.
 Find the Cartesian product borrower X loan
select 
from borrower, loan
 Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers
having a loan at the Perryridge branch.

select customer_name, borrower.loan_number, amount

from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge'

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The where Clause
 The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy
 Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra.
 To find all loan number for loans made at the Perryridge branch with
loan amounts greater than $1200.
select loan_number
from loan
where branch_name = 'Perryridge' and amount > 1200
 Comparison results can be combined using the logical connectives and,
or, and not.
 SQL includes a between comparison operator
 Find the loan number of those loans with loan amounts between
$90,000 and $100,000 (that is, $90,000 and $100,000)
select loan-number
from loan
where amount between 90000 and 100000

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The Rename Operation
 SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using the as clause:
old-name as new-name
 E.g. Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers;
rename the column name loan_number as loan_id.

select customer_name, borrower.loan_number as loan_id, amount

from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Tuple Variables
 Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the as
clause.
 Find the customer names and their loan numbers and amount for all
customers having a loan at some branch.

select customer_name, T.loan_number, S.amount

from borrower as T, loan as S
where T.loan_number = S.loan_number

 Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than
some branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct T.branch_name
from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'
Keyword as is optional and may be omitted
borrower as T ≡ borrower T
 Some database such as Oracle require as to be omitted

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 String Operations
 SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character
strings. The operator “like” uses patterns that are described using two
special characters:
 percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
 underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
 Find the names of all customers whose street includes the substring
“Main”.
select customer_name
from customer
where customer_street like '% Main%'
 Match the name “Main%”
like 'Main\%' escape '\'
 SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
 concatenation (using “||”)
 converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
 finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Ordering the Display of Tuples
 List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a loan in
Perryridge branch
select distinct customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge'
order by customer_name
 We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending
order, for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
 Example: order by customer_name desc

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Operations
 The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on relations
and correspond to the relational algebra operations 
 Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates; to
retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset versions union all,
intersect all and except all.

Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it occurs:

 m + n times in r union all s
 min(m,n) times in r intersect all s
 max(0, m – n) times in r except all s

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Operations

 Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or both:

(select customer_name from depositor)

union
(select customer_name from borrower)

 Find all customers who have both a loan and an account.

(select customer_name from depositor)

intersect
(select customer_name from borrower)

 Find all customers who have an account but no loan.

(select customer_name from depositor)

except
(select customer_name from borrower)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions
 These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of
a relation, and return a value
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
 Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch.

select avg (balance)

from account
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'

 Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.

select count (*)

from customer

 Find the number of depositors in the bank.

select count (distinct customer_name)

from depositor

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions – Group By

 Find the number of depositors for each branch.

select branch_name, count (distinct customer_name)

from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number = account.account_number
group by branch_name

Note: Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must

appear in group by list

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions – Having Clause

 Find the names of all branches where the average account balance is
more than $1,200.

select branch_name, avg (balance)

from account
group by branch_name
having avg (balance) > 1200

Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the

formation of groups whereas predicates in the where
clause are applied before forming groups

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions – Having Clause

 Find the average balance for each customer who lives in Harrison and
has at least three accounts.

select depositor,customer-name, avg (balance)

from depositor, account, customer
where depositor.account-number=account.account-number and
depositor.customer-name=customer.customer-name and
customer-city=‘Harrison’
group by depositor.customer-name
having count(distinct depsitor.account-number) > =3

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some
of their attributes
 null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
 The predicate is null can be used to check for null values.
 Example: Find all loan number which appear in the loan relation
with null values for amount.
select loan_number
from loan
where amount is null
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null
 Example: 5 + null returns null
 However, aggregate functions simply ignore nulls
 More on next slide

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values and Three Valued Logic

 Any comparison with null returns unknown

 Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null
 Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
 OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
 AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
 NOT: (not unknown) = unknown

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values and Aggregates
 Total all loan amounts
select sum (amount)
from loan
 Above statement ignores null amounts
 result is null if there is no non-null amount
 All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null
values on the aggregated attributes.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Nested Subqueries
 SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
 A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within
another query.
 A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set membership, set
comparisons, and set cardinality.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 “In” Construct
 Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.

select distinct customer_name

from borrower
where customer_name in (select customer_name
from depositor )

 Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have
an account at the bank

select distinct customer_name

from borrower
where customer_name not in (select customer_name
from depositor )

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Query
 Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
Perryridge branch

select distinct customer_name

from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge' and
(branch_name, customer_name ) in
(select branch_name, customer_name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 “Some” Construct

 Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch located
in Brooklyn.

select distinct T.branch_name

from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and
S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'

 Same query using > some clause (Alternative Style)

select branch_name
from branch
where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 “All” Construct
 Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all
branches located in Brooklyn.

select branch_name
from branch
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

(Schema used in this example)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 “Exists” Construct
 Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn.

select distinct S.customer_name

from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branch_name
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
except
(select R.branch_name
from depositor as T, account as R
where T.account_number = R.account_number and
S.customer_name = T.customer_name ))

 Note that X – Y = Ø  X Y

 Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Absence of Duplicate Tuples

 The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any duplicate

tuples in its result.
 Find all customers who have at most one account at the Perryridge
branch.
select T.customer_name
from depositor as T
where unique (
select R.customer_name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer_name = R.customer_name and
R.account_number = account.account_number and
account.branch_name = 'Perryridge')

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Query
 Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the Perryridge
branch.

select distinct T.customer_name

from depositor as T
where not unique (
select R.customer_name
from account, depositor as R
where T.customer_name = R.customer_name and
R.account_number = account.account_number and
account.branch_name = 'Perryridge')

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database – Deletion

 Delete all account tuples at the Perryridge branch

delete from account
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'

 Delete all accounts at every branch located in the city „Needham‟.

delete from account
where branch_name in (select branch_name
from branch
where branch_city = 'Needham')

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Query
 Delete the record of all accounts with balances below the average at
the bank.

delete from account

where balance < (select avg (balance )
from account )

 Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the average balance

changes
 Solution used in SQL:
1. First, compute avg balance and find all tuples to delete
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without recomputing avg or
retesting the tuples)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database – Insertion

 Add a new tuple to account

insert into account
values ('A-9732', 'Perryridge', 1200)

or equivalently

insert into account (branch_name, balance, account_number)

values ('Perryridge', 1200, 'A-9732')

 Add a new tuple to account with balance set to null

insert into account
values ('A-777','Perryridge', null )

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database – Insertion

 Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch, a $200
savings account. Let the loan number serve as the account number for the
new savings account
insert into account
select loan_number, branch_name, 200
from loan
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
 To add tuples to depositor table

insert into depositor

select customer_name, loan_number
from loan, borrower
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'
and loan.account_number = borrower.account_number
 The select from where statement is evaluated fully before any of its
results are inserted into the relation
 Motivation: insert into table1 select * from table1

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database – Update
 Pay 5% interest to all balances of account relation:
update account
set balance = balance  1.05

 Pay 5% interest on accounts whose balance is greater than

average:
update account
set balance = balance  1.05
where balance > (select avg(balance) from account)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database – Update
 Increase all accounts with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all other
accounts receive 5%.
 Write two update statements:
update account
set balance = balance  1.06
where balance > 10000

update account
set balance = balance  1.05
where balance  10000
 The order is important
 Can be done better using the case statement (next slide)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Case Statement for Conditional Updates

 Same query as before: Increase all accounts with balances over

$10,000 by 6%, all other accounts receive 5%.

update account
set balance = case
when balance <= 10000 then balance *1.05
else balance * 1.06
end

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations**
 Join operations take two relations and return as a result another
relation.
 These additional operations are typically used as subquery
expressions in the from clause
 Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations match, and
what attributes are present in the result of the join.
 Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not match any
tuple in the other relation (based on the join condition) are treated.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Datasets for Examples

 Relation loan

 Relation borrower

 Note: borrower information missing for L-260 and loan

information missing for L-155

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples

 loan inner join borrower on

loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number

 loan left outer join borrower on

loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples
 loan natural inner join borrower

 loan natural right outer join borrower

 Find all customers who have either an account or a loan (but not both) at the bank.
select customer_name
from (depositor natural full outer join borrower )
where account_number is null or loan_number is null

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Joined Relations – Examples
 Natural join can get into trouble if two relations have an attribute with
same name that should not affect the join condition
 e.g. an attribute such as remarks may be present in many tables
 Solution:
 loan full outer join borrower using (loan_number)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View Definition
 A relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made visible to
a user as a “virtual relation” is called a view.
 A view is defined using the create view statement which has the
form
create view v as < query expression >

where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression. The view

name is represented by v.
 Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to the
virtual relation that the view generates.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 A view consisting of branches and their customers who have either an
account or a loan at that branch
create view all_customer as
(select branch_name, customer_name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )
union
(select branch_name, customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number )

 Find all customers of the Perryridge branch

select customer_name
from all_customer
where branch_name = 'Perryridge'

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Uses of Views
 Hiding some information from some users
 Consider a user who needs to know a customer‟s name, loan number
and branch name, but has no need to see the loan amount.
 Define a view
(create view cust_loan_data as
select customer_name, borrower.loan_number, branch_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number )
 Grant the user permission to read cust_loan_data, but not borrower or
loan
 Predefined queries to make writing of other queries easier
 Common example: Aggregate queries used for statistical analysis of
data

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Processing of Views
 When a view is created
 the query expression is stored in the database along with the view
name
 the expression is substituted into any query using the view
 Views definitions containing views
 One view may be used in the expression defining another view
 A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation v2 if
v2 is used in the expression defining v1
 A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either v1
depends directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies from
v1 to v2
 A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Update of a View
 Create a view of all loan data in the loan relation, hiding the amount
attribute
create view loan_branch as
select loan_number, branch_name
from loan
 Add a new tuple to loan_branch
insert into loan_branch
values ('L-37„, 'Perryridge„)
This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the tuple
('L-37', 'Perryridge', null )
into the loan relation

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updates Through Views (Cont.)

 Some updates through views are impossible to translate into

updates on the database relations
 create view v as
select loan_number, branch_name, amount
from loan
where branch_name = „Perryridge‟
insert into v values ( 'L-99','Downtown', '23')

 Others cannot be translated uniquely

 insert into all_customer values ('Perryridge', 'John')
 Have to choose loan or account, and
create a new loan/account number!
 Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views
(without aggregates) defined on a single relation

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Derived Relations
 SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause
 Find the average account balance of those branches where the average
account balance is greater than $1200.
select branch_name, avg_balance
from (select branch_name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch_name )
as branch_avg ( branch_name, avg_balance )
where avg_balance > 1200
Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we compute
the temporary (view) relation branch_avg in the from clause, and the
attributes of branch_avg can be used directly in the where clause.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 With Clause
 The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary view whose
definition is available only to the query in which the with clause
occurs.
 Find all accounts with the maximum balance

with max_balance (value) as

select max (balance)
from account

select account_number
from account, max_balance
where account.balance = max_balance.value

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Integrity Constraints

 Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the

database, by ensuring that authorized changes to the
database do not result in a loss of data consistency.
 A checking account must have a balance greater than
$10,000.00
 A salary of a bank employee must be at least $4.00 an
hour
 A customer must have a (non-null) phone number

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Constraints on a Single Relation

 not null
 primary key
 Foreign key
 unique
 check (P ), where P is a predicate

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The check clause

Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for

branch and ensure that the values of assets are non-
negative.
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name),
check (assets >= 0))

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 The check clause (Cont.)

 The check clause in SQL-92 permits domains to be restricted:

 Use check clause to ensure that an hourly_wage domain allows
only values greater than a specified value.
create domain hourly_wage numeric(5,2)
constraint value_test check(value > = 4.00)
 The domain has a constraint that ensures that the hourly_wage is
greater than 4.00
 The clause constraint value_test is optional; useful to indicate
which constraint an update violated.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Referential Integrity

 Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of
attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation.
 Example: If “Perryridge” is a branch name appearing in one of the
tuples in the account relation, then there exists a tuple in the branch
relation for branch “Perryridge”.
 Primary and candidate keys and foreign keys can be specified as part of
the SQL create table statement:
 The primary key clause lists attributes that comprise the primary key.
 The unique key clause lists attributes that comprise a candidate key.
 The foreign key clause lists the attributes that comprise the foreign
key and the name of the relation referenced by the foreign key. By
default, a foreign key references the primary key attributes of the
referenced table.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Referential Integrity in SQL – Example

create table customer

(customer_name char(20),
customer_street char(30),
customer_city char(30),
primary key (customer_name ))
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets numeric(12,2),
primary key (branch_name ))

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Referential Integrity in SQL – Example (Cont.)

create table account

(account_number char(10),
branch_name char(15),
balance integer,
primary key (account_number),
foreign key (branch_name) references branch )
create table depositor
(customer_name char(20),
account_number char(10),
primary key (customer_name, account_number),
foreign key (account_number ) references account,
foreign key (customer_name ) references customer )

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Assertions

 An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the

database always to satisfy.
 An assertion in SQL takes the form
create assertion <assertion-name> check <predicate>
 When an assertion is made, the system tests it for validity, and tests it
again on every update that may violate the assertion
 This testing may introduce a significant amount of overhead;
hence assertions should be used with great care.
 Asserting
for all X, P(X)
is achieved in a round-about fashion using
not exists X such that not P(X)

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Assertion Example

 Every loan has at least one borrower who maintains an account with a
minimum balance or $1000.00
create assertion balance_constraint check
(not exists (
select *
from loan
where not exists (
select *
from borrower, depositor, account
where loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number
and borrower.customer_name = depositor.customer_name
and depositor.account_number = account.account_number
and account.balance >= 1000)))

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Assertion Example

 The sum of all loan amounts for each branch must be less than the
sum of all account balances at the branch.
create assertion sum_constraint check
(not exists (select *
from branch
where (select sum(amount )
from loan
where loan.branch_name =
branch.branch_name )
>= (select sum (balance )
from account
where loan.branch_name =
branch.branch_name )))

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Trigger
 Trigger is a statement that the system executes automatically as a side
effect of a modification to the database.
 Specify when a trigger is to be executed. This is broken up into an
event that causes the trigger to be checked and a condition that must
be satisfied for trigger execution to proceed.
 Specify the actions to be taken when trigger executes.
 So, Trigger is referred to as even-condition-action model.
 The triggering event can be insert, delete and update.
 For updates, the trigger can specify columns whose update causes the
trigger to execute.
create trigger overdraft-trigger after update of balance on account
 The referencing old row as clause can be used to create variable
storing the old value of an updated or deleted value. The referencing
new row as clause can be used with inserts in addition to updates.
 Triggers can be activated before the event (insert/delete/update)
instead of after the event.

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Thanks!!!!!

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed., June 2006 3.70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan