Wachemo University, College of Social Science and Humanity, Department of History and Heritage Management

UNIT FIVE
5. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY
SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
5.1 Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost
territories. In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de
Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate, natures of
Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysitetheology of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.
EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature inseparable
from the divine. The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts to
evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
➢ The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59),
hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
➢ The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to
have been sympathetic to Catholicism. Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the
Jesuits to effect the desired result.
➢ Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who met a similar fate
in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
➢ Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders, who refused to pay tribute,
integrated the Oromo with the forces of the central government to consolidate his
power and stabilize the country.
➢ Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
➢ In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to be state religion later
in 1622.
➢ In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-Catholic voices mounted following the
changes in liturgy and religious practice.
Even worse, with the monarch’s consent,
• Another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered re-consecration of Orthodox priests
and deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
• Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male
circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
• Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, worship for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant
(Tabot).
• Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass/use Latin as language of worship/
and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
• The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics/priest or clergy/ and the nobility
• Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67)
were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.

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After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the
verge of falling apart.
In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the
Catholic transformation.
❖ Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
❖ expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother
and the most passionate supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos.
❖ Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced a “closed-
door” policy, which isolated the country from all Europeans for about a
century and a half.
Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close (door) diplomatic relations with the
Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to ensure that no
European crossed into the Christian Kingdom. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe
remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the exception of secret
visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in
1700 and 1769, respectively.
5.2 Population Movements
The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in shaping
the history of Ethiopia and the Horn in the 16th c. Population movements occurred in the
Horn due to various reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions. The main
factors that population movement during the medieval period of Ethiopia
In search of resources and better living environment
Military conflicts,
Drought
Demographic pressure
The extensive effects population movements of the medieval period
The integration of peoples across ethnic and religious lines.
Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling of peoples.
Intermarriage of peoples, change of habitat, original culture and evolution of
new identities.
5.2.1 Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement
of the Argoba, Afar and Somali. In addition, pressure on the environment laid the ground for
the population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and
hence were affected by the consequences of the military conflict.
The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by the
Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed
al Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area
inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the
major center of conflict. Because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba
territory.
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As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the destruction of
sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict can be observed
from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.

The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until
they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through
the Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the
Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being
actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different
directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral economy
helped them to survive the destructive effects of the wars.
The Somali: their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes during medieval
period. Prior to the 16th c wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates,
there was environmental pressure on the Somali. The population movement of the Somali
was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam. However, the population
movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their home base following
the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
5.2.2 The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.
In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organized under
Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars:
• Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) , Mudena (1530-8) , Kilole
(1538-46) , Bifole (1546-54) , Michille (1554-62) , Harmufa (1562-70), Qacina and
Wayyata; (r.1559-63) , In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97), Robale gadaa (1570-
78) . Birmaji (1578-86) , Mul’ata (1586-94) , Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10),
and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa
while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in
Somalia.

In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established
Gadaa centers.
Accordingly,
• Oda Nabee of Tulama,
• Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
• Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
• Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
Some of Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda
Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.

- Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father of
anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty.

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-Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending their delegates to
Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due
to the political influence of the Ethiopian state. In due course, Gadaa devised effective
resource allocation formula including land. Land holding system to regulate resource and
their interaction among different clans is known as the qabiyye system. The system
established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of land.
Consequences of Oromo population movement and expansion
One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that it put an end to the
wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of
the Christian state.
At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century
brought far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious
background.
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha
and Moggasa.
➢ Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent.
• In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child.
➢ Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly known
as Oromsu.
➢ Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan
through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such
membership entailed.
➢ Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the clan. The
adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits.
The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to
the Christian and Muslim states.
It relatively covered extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic
groups, cultures, and religions from south to north and from east to west.Ethinic and religious
or social interactions became common.

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5.3 Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

The Gadaa System
The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system. The Gadaa system was an institution through which
the Oromo socially organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their
territories, maintained law and order, and managed their economies. Studies do not clearly
indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear that for long the
society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs through the
Gadaa institution.

Time computation and recording history was based on the eight-year segment of time.
In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years
represented one generation and nine generations represented an era.

The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of
all lineages, clans and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization,
education, maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion. In addition, Gadaa
constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).
The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age-
grades and five classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political framework
that institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among
members of a grade. Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class
or set) 40 years after their fathers and were initiated into the next higher grade every eight
years. Accordingly the age-grades and their roles were:-
1, Dabale (0-8) years socialization
2, Game (9-16)
3, Folle (17-24) military training, agriculture etc
4, Qondala (25-32) military service
5, Raba-Dori (33-40) candidates for political power
6, Luba (41-48) leaders of Gadaa government
7, Yuba (49 to 80) senior advisors, educators and ritual.
The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as
Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set.
• These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
• Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
• Abba-Dula (war leader),
• Abba Sera (father of law),
• Abba Alanga (judge),
• Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power
transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe

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institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. The Gadaa system
functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.

5.4 Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural interactions
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade
continued to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been the source of
friendship, interaction, interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region. The long
distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social ties. These interactions and
interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for
modern Ethiopia.

The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the major factors
for the people's interactions across regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and
conflict times. The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
religious expansion, and territorial expansion and population movements. One of the major
consequences of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the population
movement of the sixteenth century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movement of the period relatively covered
extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and
religions from south to north and from east to west. It is apparent that territorial and religious
expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south.
Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar
and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.

5.5 Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions.
Peoples and States in the East
Somali
The Somali people have inhabited vast territory in the Horn. For long, the Somali practiced
pastoral economy and moved between places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient
pasture. Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town located in the
southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis
together during the 13th c.
Historically, a council known as shir governed the society. The decision making process was
highly democratic in which all-adult male were allowed equal access and participation. These
councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure that acted as an
enforcement of law and justice. The council governed wide-ranging affairs including resource
allocation, marriage, trade and crime.
Afar: - predominantly have lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although
some have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea. The Afar had an indigenous governance
system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy. The Afar people
were first mentioned by Ibn Said. During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb.

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The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as Maduna and
Abasa. Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the 16thC, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad. Awsa
Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash.
Argoba:-Early reference to the people of Argoba is scars. There are two versions on the
origin of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that they descended from the followers
of the Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat. The second
version claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants.
That said, the Argoba were one of the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam very
early from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
The Emirate of Harar: - Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia
and the Horn. In the sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal
replacing Dakar until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo.
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into
the Christian kingdom in 1527. Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a
walled city where the sultanate of the Harari developed.
In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the
Oromo established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It was
strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir. The emirate grew
in importance to be a steady center of Islamic culture and power. Its economic power grew as
it controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its authority was
established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage, and
expansion of Islamic teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent
an expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade.
Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa: - the Kingdom of Shewan was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi
Kristos (r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and
Yifat. The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Abuye/
Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo
before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to
control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority
over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to
Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.17751808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete,
Morat and Shewa Meda. The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many travelers visited
Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841.
Shewa’s economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft.
Gurage:-The Gurage live in southern Ethiopia. The main Gurage clans and their sub-
divisions are the following; Inor group (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna, Gyeto and Mesemes),
Chaha group (Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer and Gura) and the Kistane group (Nurana and
many other clans). Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan. The staple
crop in Gurage land is enset.

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The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. There was,
however, no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups.
Kambata:-By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the
contemporary state of Kambata which means, “this is the place” (where we live-as the
Kambata believe in). The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland
around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory. The other three namely the
Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.

Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the area between Omo
and Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian Empire. In 1532, the
region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army, which furthered the interaction of peoples. The
people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same language called
Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena,
Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.The Kambata had a traditional
administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The council had seven members
each representing the seven clans in the region.
Hadiya:-The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the 13th c. It was mentioned in the
Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the
federation of Zeila. The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was
largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable
Muslim population. By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion,
subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet”
Bel’am aligned with the then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.From
the 13-16th centuries, Hadiya’s political importance was considerable with sizable population
and vast territory. In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara-
Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo. To stabilize the
situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya,
who became an important historical figure, married Emperor ZaraYaqob.
The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and the Oromo population movement until Hadiya's
incorporation into the Imperial state in the late 19th c. After these two major historical events
especially the latter, Hadiya’s population became more diverse. However, descendants of the
old Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the
Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu, Soro,
Shashogo and Badowacho. The Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic
family and their languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.
Peoples and States in the South
Sidama: Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia
occupying lowlands. Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the basis of
Sidama’s economy. Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash crops
respectively. The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king).
The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of

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elders called Songo. There was no written constitution, rules were known by heart through
generations and practiced accordingly.
The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. He was selected for his
ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma
could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma
handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits.
Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades
each lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha
under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa.
Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of
the Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate
truth) to judge the right and wrong.
Gedeo: Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The
dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of
Gujo (father of Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the
seven sons of Daraso. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte
(senior house) where the first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-clans and the
second called sase batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans.
Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional
medicine or leadership.
The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70year
cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing one
Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the next
age set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the top,
Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed.
Konso: - the name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia
and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of
the term is a “heavily forested hill/ area.” A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was
covered by dense forest, had been the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying
environment along Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. Konso attracted
the attention of local and international researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one
of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.
Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers
combined crop production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil
conservation techniques notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert
rugged and hilly areas into permanent cultivation.

The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata,
Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta. The Tselta had fixed cycle of
years starting from birth, although they varied across villages-

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Peoples and States in South-western Part

Wolayta: the name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia and
their powerful kingdom, which first emerged as a state back in the thirteenth century.
According to local traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the area
was inhabited by different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja. At the
apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of
advisors. From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled
Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami,
the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the fifteenth century.
The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation
cover for the most part of the year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it
to his dependents.
Kaffa: according to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in 14th c. The ruling Minjo
dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion
might have forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result
brought Christianity and the royal title tato to Kafa.
Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade.
Major trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were
exported via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho. The Mikrecho served
to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in succession as well.
The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The
Gojeb also served as natural protection against external invasion and it might have
contributed to their relative independence until 1897.
Yem: the Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe. Yem’s economy
combined agriculture, trade and crafts. Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or
Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity
of Bor Ama Mountain. Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of
Yem acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state council of 12 members named
Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state. Erasho were
the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches called bero and
erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom around Brisi
Bita so that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings.
Gamo: historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe
Mountain and beyond. Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the geze
(highland) and the bazo (lowland). The highlands were densely populated while people who
escaped coercion by the state at the political center largely settled the lowlands which also
served as hunting fields. A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-
use in the Gamo highlands.
The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize
and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.
The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth century in the
praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30).

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The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared three essential features.
These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered sacrifices and
symbolized the unity of the people. 2) Every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and; (3)
every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters were
discussed and disputes solved.
The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority
according to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans each having a
system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege
over lineage members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levels
of the community. The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept of kawo refers
to the first rank status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and
primogeniture.
Dawuro:Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland
and plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins. The land is divided into three climatic zones. These
are geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and gad’a (lowland). Such climatic conditions
enriched Dawuro with a variety of tree species and natural vegetation/forest. The livelihood
of Dawuro people is based on mixed agricultural activities. The language of Dawuro people
is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.

Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla,
and Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos. By about 1700, the
Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the
territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and the Kafa high
mountains in the west.

Ari: the Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times.
These included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom,
Bodi, Male, etc. Major economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture,
pastoralism and handcrafts.
The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic language
family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist.
Peoples and States in the West Berta and Gumuz
The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State. The earliest record of
Berta settlement in this region dates from the 16th c. The Berta people speak the Berta
language as their mother tongue. It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-
Saharan linguistic group. The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which belongs to the Nilo-
Saharan family. It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic influence had been strong on the
Berta and other Nilotes because of their trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.
Anywa: historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila,
Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-
day Gambella region. The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan
language family. The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village
lived under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution
of farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community.
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Nuer: Since 19th c, they had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat
and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan. The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding
supplemented by crop production. The Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture
around their cattle, which were used as bride wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system
combining social and political functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a severe test and a
series of rites connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.
Majang: the Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the
escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence relates
the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually, they moved
northwards and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia. Economically, the Majang
practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry.
The Kunama: - The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants
of western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and western
Tigray. The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a
self-designation of the Kunama.
The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated with the
administration of the society. The office of the sanga-anene was held by male members of the
society. The office was transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next born on
matrilineal line. The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture.
Peoples and States in South-Central, South-western, and Western Ethiopia
South-Central: Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage were autonomous and semi-
autonomous political entities during this period. Economically, they depended largely on
agriculture. Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the
long distance trade.
Among these, the Gurage land was an important market centre and political entity. Important
trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel were located in the Gurage land. The Gurage had
their own political organization and their leaders held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch who
combined political and military authority.
The Gibe States
th
Towards the beginning of the 19 c, several monarchical states (motumma) emerged among
the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system. Many factors accounted for the
transformation of the Gadaa system. In the process, the war leaders of the Gadaa system
(Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government. The
abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on long distance trade and
utilized the opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. This development especially took
place among the Oromo around Gibe, where the following five monarchical states emerged.
i. Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was founded through
the incorporation of Enarya. Initially, Abbaa Dulas of Limmu like Tesso fought and defeated
the rulers of Enarya like Badancho, Gu’amcho and Banaro at different times. Finally,
Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya. The Kingdom reached the
height of its power during Ibsa’s reign, when he incorporated areas including Hagalo, Badi-
Folla etc.

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ii. Guma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state
formation and succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe
(1840-1854).
iii. Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son Abba
Manoo (1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
iv. Jimma: Towards the late 18th c, Makahore emerged as an influential female figure among
the Sadacha Mecha Oromo of Jimma. The local Abba Dula sought to take political power
from her. Among the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler
against the Gadaa rule. He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal) who enlarged the
domain. The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55)
who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors like Abba Rebu
(1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba Gomol(r.1861-75).The most famous among
the Jimma monarchs was Tullu /Abba Jifar II (ca. r.1875-1934). Apart from agriculture and
trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and smelting at Dakkano and Kito,
respectively.
v. Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed. The process of state formation in
Gera was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader who
made himself king. Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after a short interlude by
Abba Basso. Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been converted to
Islam. As with other Gibe states, Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam.
The Leqa States
Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo of
Wallagga. Among these were the Leqa states, the Sibu and the Jawwi south of the Abbay
River. While Moti Abishe established strong kingdom of Horro, a number of Abba Dulas
declared themselves moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large territories in
the region west of the Gibe region. Among these, the Leqa states were the prominent ones.
I. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height under his
successors Moroda and Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher). The latter were able to
establish strong monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture. The Leqa-Naqamte rulers
instituted a new administrative structure and judicial hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa
system known as sirna abba-qoro (qoro system). In its nature, the administration system
was essentially kingship and was quite similar to feudal administration in its reliance on land.
II. Leqa-Qellam: was located in south western Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and
became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami and controlling the areas
around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.
III. Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor) set up the well
consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early nineteenth century. It was one of the
prosperous states in the region.
Contrary to the Gadaa values that had not requisitioned any kind of taxation, under
monarchical systems farmers were forced to paycrop tax measured by traditional instruments
called buchano (about 15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop.
Nilotic Sheikdoms
In the early 19th C, important Islamic centres emerged in the lower course of the Abbay. A
number of Shiekdoms were established. Among them, the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi,
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Bela Shangul and Khomosha were established to the south of Abbay River. The Sheikhdom
of Guba emerged to the north of the same river in the western edge of Gojjam. The four
sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who considered
themselves as ‘Watawit’. The term Watawit refers to Arbaized Berta people who had entered
and settled in Benishangul as traders and Islamic religious teachers in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries.
The main economic bases of the sheikdoms were agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade.
Among these sheikhdoms, Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan. While
Bela/BeniShangul became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale, Khomosha reached its
zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud. Similarly, Guba was established to the
north of the Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
5.6 The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
The Gondarine Period
Political Developments
Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Emperor Yohannes I and
his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem. His successor, Iyasu I,
reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes,
and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning
of reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father
and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by
Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned
and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.
Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his wife Etege
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in politics and the army as will be discussed shortly.
From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the
reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege
Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the
growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras
Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul
succeeded in stabilizing the situation and refused to return to Tigray although demanded by
Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes
II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son TaklaHaymanot II
(1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
Achievements of the Gondarine Period
Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and
crafts for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political
affairs but also in cultural developments.

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Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years,
Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath,
library, towers, fortifications and there are squared, round and unknown shape of churches. In
the cities compound the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different
palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and
Regent Queen Mentewab.
Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments,
weapons and other accessories especially, the churches built by Queen Mentwab were known
by beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Trade and Urbanization: - Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance
trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border.
Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. The appearance of daily market was known.
With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like Indians,
Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. In addition to
its political and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims
and Bete-Israel
The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of political power was in the
hands of different regional lords. The period lasts from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint
lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shewa. When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the
Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debretabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was
considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
➢ absence of effective central government
➢ the growing power and influence of the regional warlords; regionalism
➢ the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia;
➢ rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king
maker; establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
➢ Religionalism, Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes; controversy within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached
its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
➢ Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a
Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the
world as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus
Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
➢ Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and accepted
the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of

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his incarnation/born/, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed
him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
➢ Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ
was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St.
Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and
Shawa.
➢ Economic degradation due to peasants miserable life,war,huge tax and slavery
➢ Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door Policy.”

5.7 Major Developments in 19th century in Ethiopia and Horn

Making of modern Ethiopia, territorial expansission to south, south east,south west and
centeral by Emperior Menelik,Kifu Qan(1888-92) and external threats to Ethioapia were
major historical events of the period.
External Relations
Agreements and Treaties
One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the 'close door policy’ that was
introduced by Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). Thus, beginning from the early 1800s,
regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties.One of the earliest
private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras WoldeSelassie of Tigray on 28
August 1805. He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was to establish
friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia.Several British travelers including Christian
Kugler also arrived in the 1830s. Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a scholar)
arrived in 1846; Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission visited Shewa. John
Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s, the Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like
arrived for trade relation and scientific purposes.The result of these contacts was the
agreement between Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British Captain W. Harris in 1841 as
well as with the French Rochet d’Hericourt, in 1843. In addition, Walter Plowden also signed
treaty with Ras Ali in 1849.

The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were the restoration of the lost territories, the
delimitation of boundaries and the defense of the sovereignty of the state against the threat
and interference by foreign powers. When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he
tried to solve through negotiation than war. War was his last choice as he fought with Egypt
in 1875/76 and Mahdists Sudan in 1889.One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes
concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was a treaty signed between the Emperor and the
British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa.In terms of
diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek II was more successful
through maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period. While he was king of
Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later helped him to acquire military
equipment.

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Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale Treaty. It
was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo
between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of
Italy. The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages.
The Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to legitimize its
further expansion towards the Mereb River. However, Article XVII has major difference in
the two language versions. In this article, Italy announced that all foreign powers had to deal
with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia.

This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where the latter became victorious. After the victory
of Adwa, different foreign countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish
relations on official basis.International politics of the twentieth century also shaped
Ethiopia’s foreign relations. For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu
showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Bulgaria and
Ottoman Empire) believing that the defeat of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would
allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia. He also befriended the Somali
nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain. Sayyid
Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the Somali against the European occupation. He
tried to attract support from the mass through his Pan-Somali movement. In the history of the
Somali, he is recognized as a forerunner of modern Somali nationalism.

One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early twentieth was her admission to
the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand European tour, which
shaped his ideas of modernization. Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations, however, did
not save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism
The Battle of Dabarki (1848)
❖ Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848.
❖ Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military imbalance
particularly, the modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson
to modernize his military force, acquire modern technologies.
❖ This later initiated him to widen his vision and mission when he became emperor.

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The Battle of Maqdela (1868)

Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through two British citizens, Walter Plowden and John
Bell. His main aim was to obtain help against foreign threats. In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen
Victoria requesting assistance through Consul Cameron.Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt
without bringing any response. Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain
Cameron and other Europeans. On learning of the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria
sent a letter through Hormuzd Rassam, which did not satisfy Tewodros.After some communications,
the British parliament decided to take military action.

❖ Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa.
❖ This force reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later
Emperor Yohannes).
❖ On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye were
defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge.
❖ On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela.
❖ This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of manuscripts, religious
and secular artifacts including his crown by the British troops.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
In the nineteenth century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa with the
ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. Following their occupation of the Sudan in 1821, they
moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance,

❖ In 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions.
❖ Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the
Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885.
❖ Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for invasion of
Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes
through Tajura. But, Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the
Battle of Odduma.
❖ Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops
through Massawa.
❖ Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered
the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the Egyptian troops
were severely defeated.
❖ Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their
army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the
Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876).
❖ It is important to understand that some Europeans and Americans were in the service
of Egyptians.

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❖ For instance, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan, Werner Munzinger, was a
Swiss born adventurer and former French Consul in Northeast Africa.
❖ Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and General Charles Stone was
fellow American.
The Battle of Dogali
During the late nineteenth century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea area. With
the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic and
commercial importance. One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was
Italy. The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company
(Rubatino) bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. In 1882, the port of Assab
was transferred to the Italian government. In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from
Egypt to Italy. By using these bases as springboard, Italy began to penetrate into northern
Ethiopia.

Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash
region. However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida,
Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man. Following this battle, Italy signed a
Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor Yohannes

The Battle of Metemma

The Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that lasted from
1885 to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in
September 1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. In January 1887, Yohannes
ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. A year later, the Mahdists
led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s troops at Sar- Wuha in Dembia.
However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the Italian advance
to Mereb Milash, he heard of the Mahdists advance up to Gondar. The Mahdists caused a lot
of destruction on churches and monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity.
At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haimanot conspired against the
emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists.

As a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called a triangular tension, namely the
Italians in the north, the Mahdists in the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the
center.Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-
Wallagga) by Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888. Hence, on
March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.
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The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath

The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and
Italian forces. This was because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas
Ethiopians were ready not to give in. To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb
River, arrived at Adigrat, and proceeded to Emba-Alage. Following Emperor Menilek's
proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country
gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo).People marched to the front irrespective of
gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression.

❖ The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Emba-Alage and
forced them to retreat to Mekele.
❖ In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces defeated
Italians at Mekele.
❖ At Mekelle, the Italians were brought under seige denying them of access to a water
well which they used.
❖ The strategy was commonly called the “Siege of Mekele” and was considered to be
designed by Empress Taytu.
❖ After some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their
compatriots at Adwa.
❖ A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war
generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Negus
Tekle-Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa.
❖ The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the
Italians
❖ At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000 were
captured wherea on the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been
killed.
❖ Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis
Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896.
❖ A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United
States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also recognized the independence of
Ethiopia and opened their legations in Addis Ababa.
❖ Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of Adwa, the heroic
national campaign, cooperation, and common successes of peoples of Ethiopia had a
positive implication for success and national integration.
❖ The victory assured independence and national pride.
❖ It has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black race in
general.Furthermore, the victory of Ethiopians at Adwa has had an enduring legacy in
the relations between freedom fighters and colonizing powers.
❖ The victory of black people over white colonizers initiated entire Africans fighting
against colonialism.

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❖ The well-known PanAfricanist, Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to
Africa” movement with the success of Ethiopians.
❖ He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and Ethiopianism became a
symbol of anti-colonial movements
Italian Occupation (1935/36-41) and the Patriotic Resistance
A. Background
Italy, wait the right time to fulfill their interests in any possible way. Italy eventually got its
ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists
were determined to restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s
shameful scar at Adwa.

To achieve their goal of occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed two policies as it was the
case before the Battle of Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’. The policy of
subversion aimed at affecting the unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray,
Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was
only searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident. The
Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement
limitations: lack of demarcation on the ground and lack of effective administrative control in
the frontier regions.
The 1935 Invasion and After
After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their aggression via two major
fronts: the northern and the southern Front. The war was started in the northern Front when
the Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3 October 1935 and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and
Mekelle. In January 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through three fronts.
Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the
entire northern front), Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front, and Ras Mulugeta
Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front.

On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the Italians
intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of coordination
among the above-mentioned commanders. On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the
Italians at the first Battle in Temben. This was followed by an attack on the Ethiopian force,
which was stationed in what seemed to be an impregnable natural fortress of Amba-Aradom,
to the south of Mekelle. The Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the
commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. Besides modern
weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air. Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and
Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops. This resulted in another defeat at the
Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936).

On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing force of the Italians. A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in
the northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost
their lives from gunpowder and air bombardment during the battle.The Ethiopian army in the
Southern Front was better equipped and well led. Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and
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Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in this
Front.

The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was larger
than the North, which slowed their advance to the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa
before Graziani even crossed Harar. On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three
days later the Italians entered Addis Ababa. Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the
Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting and random shooting.
Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy and the world about their control of
Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!”

The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and
Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI).The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative
regional divisions that replaced former international boundaries. These were: Eritrea
(including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara; Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo
and Northern Shewa) with its capital at Gondar; Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and
Southwestern provinces) with its capital at Jimma; Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu; Addis Ababa (later changed to
Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia,
the following Italians served as governors of Italian East Africa successively: Marshal
Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till February 1937), and finally
Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta). Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and
corruption characterized the Italian administration of IEA.
The legacy of the Italian rule
Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa, Jimma,
Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity
Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words)
The consolidation of cash economy
Road construction and development of motor transport
The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious tensions etc.

The Patriotic Resistance Movement

The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather, the
Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways. Among others, the patriots gave them
hard times largely in rural areas. The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war
itself. Among the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three commanders of
the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam
Gari, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam
Yinnnadu.

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The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19
February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled
a bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him
seriously and killing some others.

On 12 July 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally. The British launched a three
pronged attack on the Italians.
• In the north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
• In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor
from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the
Gedeon force.
• General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The advances were rapid largely
due to the demoralization that the patriots had caused among the Italians.
• Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941, exactly five years
after Italian entry to the capital.

23 History of Ethiopia and the Horn Course Code: Hist.1012