Rules of M-II

Ordinary Differential Equations

Differential Equation:
A differential equation is an equation involving differential or
differential coefficients.
Ordinary differential equations :Differential equations which
involve only one independent variable and differential co-efficients
w.r.t it are called Ordinary differential equations.
Partial differential equations:Differential equations which
involve two or more independent variable and partial derivatives
w.r.t it are called Partialdifferential equations.
Exact Differential Equation: A differential equation is called
exact differential equation if it is obtained only by differentiation
of its primitive without applying any other operation like
addition, subtraction, elimination etc.
e.g. 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0

Necessary and Sufficient condition for differential eq. to be exact:

The necessary and sufficient condition for differential eq.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
Mdx+Ndy =0 to be exact is = .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Solution of Exact Differential equation:

∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Integrating Factor: A suitable factor by multiplying with which, the

given equation becomes exact is called integrating factor.
Rules to find Integrating Factor:
1. By Inspection:
 i. 𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑(𝑥𝑦)
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
ii. 2 = 𝑑( )
𝑦 𝑦
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
iii. = 𝑑 (tan−1 )
x2 +𝑦2 𝑦
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑥
iv. = 𝑑 (log )
x2 +𝑦2 𝑦
𝑦𝑑𝑥−𝑥𝑑𝑦
v. = 𝑑(log xy)
xy

2. If the equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is homogenous, then

1
Integrating factor = , provided 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁𝑦
𝑀𝑥+𝑁𝑦
3. If the equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is of the form
𝑓(𝑥𝑦)𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥𝑦)𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0, then
1
Integrating factor = , provided 𝑀𝑥 − 𝑁𝑦
𝑀𝑥−𝑁𝑦
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
4. If = 𝑓(𝑥 ), a function of x only, then I. F. =
𝑁
𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
5. If = 𝑔(𝑦), a function of y only, then I. F. =
𝑀
𝑒 ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

6. If equation Mdx+Ndy =0 is of the form

𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 (𝑚𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑦) + 𝑥 𝑐 𝑦 𝑑 (𝑝𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥𝑑𝑦) = 0,
a, b, c, d, m, n, p, q are constants, then I. F. = 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 ,
where h and k are obtained from the equations
𝑎+ℎ+1 𝑏+𝑘+1 𝑐+ℎ+1 𝑑+𝑘+1
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝 𝑞

𝒅𝒚
Equations solvable for p (𝒑 = 𝒅𝒙)

• Let the differential equation be of degree n.

 • Factorize the differential equation into the linear factors of the
form (𝑝 − 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦))
• Each factor is a differential equation of first order and first
degree. Solve them.
• Let the solutions of these factors be
𝑔1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐 ) = 0, 𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0, 𝑔3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0, … … … … … ,
𝑔𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0
• Then solution of given equation is given by
𝑔1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐)𝑔2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) 𝑔3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) … … … … … 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑐) = 0

Equations solvable for y

• Write the differential equation in the form 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑝) … … … … … (1)
• Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get 𝑝 =
𝑑𝑝
𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑝, ) … … … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
• (2) is a differential equation of first order and first degree in
𝑑𝑝
. Solve it.
𝑑𝑥
• Let the solution of (2) be 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑝, 𝑐) = 0 … … … … … (3)
• To obtain the solution of given equation, eliminate p from (1)
and (3).
• If it is not possible to eliminate p from (1) and (3), then using
(1) and (3), find the values of y and x in terms of p and c.
let these values be
𝑦 = ∅(𝑝, 𝑐) … … … … … (4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑝) … … … … … (5)
• (4) and (5) simultaneously give solution of given equation.

Equations solvable for x

• Write the differential equation in the form 𝑥 =
𝑓(𝑦, 𝑝) … … … … … (1)
1
• Differentiating both sides w.r.t. y, we get =
𝑝
𝑑𝑝
𝐹 (𝑦, 𝑝, ) … … … … … (2)
𝑑𝑦
• (2) is a differential equation of first order and first degree in
𝑑𝑝
. Solve it.
𝑑𝑦
• Let the solution of (2) be 𝑔(𝑦, 𝑝, 𝑐) = 0 … … … … … (3)
• To obtain the solution of given equation, eliminate p from (1)
and (3).
• If it is not possible to eliminate p from (1) and (3), then using
(1) and (3), find the values of y and x in terms of p and c.
let these values be
𝑦 = ∅(𝑝, 𝑐) … … … … … (4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑝) … … … … … (5)
• (4) and (5) simultaneously give solution of given equation.

Clairaut’s Equation: An equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑝) is

called Clairaut’s equation. Its solution is given by replacing p by
c in the given equation.
Equations reducible to Clairaut’s equation:
i. If the equation contains terms of the type 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑏𝑦 ,
Put 𝑒 ℎ𝑥 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 ℎ𝑦 = 𝑌, where ℎ = 𝐻. 𝐶. 𝐹. (𝑎, 𝑏).
𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑦
ii. If the equation is of the form 𝑦 = ( ) 𝑥 2 + 𝑓 ( )
𝑥 𝑥
Put 𝑥 2 = 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 2 = 𝑌.

Linear Differential equations

• Linear Differential equation: A differential equation is said to
be linear differential equation if it is of degree one and does
not contain any term having product of dependent variable and
its derivative.
 𝑑𝑦
• Leibnitz form : An equation of the form + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄 (𝑥 ) is
𝑑𝑥
called Leibnitz form.
Integrating factor = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and
Solution of given equation is (Integrating factor)z =
∫ 𝑄 (𝑥 ) (Integrating factor)dx + c

𝑑𝑦
• Bernoulli’s form: An equation of the form + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑛 𝑄 (𝑥 ) is called Bernoulli’s form.
𝑑𝑦
Dividing both sides by 𝑦 𝑛 , we get 𝑦 −𝑛 + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦1−𝑛 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑄 (𝑥 ) … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
Put 𝑦1−𝑛 = 𝑧 → (1 − 𝑛)𝑦 −𝑛 = → 𝑦 −𝑛 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑧
(1−𝑛) 𝑑𝑥
.
1 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧
∴ (𝑖)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 (1−𝑛) 𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑧 = 𝑄 (𝑥 ) → +
𝑑𝑥
(1 − 𝑛)𝑃(𝑥 )𝑧 = (1 − 𝑛)𝑄 (𝑥 ) .

It is Leibnitz form.

• Higher Order Equations

Let the differential equation be of the form 𝐹 (𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )
Auxiliary eq. is given by 𝐹 (𝐷) = 0. Solve it.
Rules for Complementary Function:
1. If the roots of Auxiliary equation are real and distinct say
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑒 𝑚3 𝑥
2. If the roots of Auxiliary equation are real and distinct say
𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚 , then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑐3 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑐4 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 +
𝑥 4 𝑐5 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
 3. If the roots are a pair of complex conjugate numbers say
𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑥 )
4. If the roots are repeated pair of complex conjugate
numbers say 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽 then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 [(𝑐1 + 𝑥𝑐2 + 𝑥 2 𝑐3 ) cos 𝛽𝑥 + (𝑐1 + 𝑥𝑐2 +
𝑥 2 𝑐3 ) sin 𝛽𝑥 ]

Rules for Particular integral: Let the equation be of the form

𝐹 (𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ).
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝐹(𝐷)

1. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 provided denominator does not become
zero. If denominator becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝐷
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 provided denominator does not become
zero. If denominator becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 2 𝑑2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝐹(𝐷)
𝑑𝐷2
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 provided denominator does not become
zero.
Continue this process till we get a non-zero denominator.
2. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = cos(𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑟 sin(𝑎𝑥 )
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝐹(𝐷)
 Put 𝐷 2 = −(𝑎2 ) provided denominator does not
become zero. If denominator becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑑𝐷
𝐹(𝐷)
Put 𝐷 2 = −(𝑎2 ) provided denominator does not
become zero. If denominator becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 2 𝑑2
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝐹(𝐷)
𝑑𝐷2
Put 𝐷 2 = −(𝑎2 ) provided denominator does not
become zero.
3. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑚
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥𝑚
𝐹(𝐷)
Use Binomial Theorem i.e.
𝑛(𝑛−1)
If |𝑥 | < 1 , (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 +
2!
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
𝑥 3 + ⋯ … … … ….
3!
i. (1 + 𝑥 )−1 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 − ⋯ … … … ….
ii. (1 − 𝑥 )−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ … … … ….
iii. (1 + 𝑥 )−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 −
⋯ … … … ….
iv. (1 − 𝑥 )−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 +
⋯ … … … ….

4. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉, where V is any function.

1 1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑉 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ( 𝑉)
𝐹(𝐷) 𝐹(𝐷)

5. General Rule: Factorize 𝐹 (𝐷) into linear factors of the

form (𝐷 − 𝐴). Apply partial fractions.
1
(𝐷−𝐴)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝐴𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 −𝐴𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
 Method of Variation of Parameters
It is a special method to find particular integral of a second order
differential equation.
i. Calculate the complementary function. Let it be 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2
𝑦1 𝑦2
ii. Calculate 𝑊 = |𝑦 ′ 𝑦 ′ |
1 2
𝑦2 𝑋𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑋𝑑𝑥
iii. 𝑢 = −∫ and 𝑣 = ∫ 1
𝑊 𝑊
iv. Particular Integral = 𝑢𝑦1 + 𝑣𝑦2

Cauchy’s homogenous equation:

An equation of the form
𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 1
𝑑1 𝑦
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 1
Is called Cauchy’s homogenous equation.

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 1
Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
= → = → 𝑥 = → 𝑥 = 𝜃𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
where 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦 2
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝜃 (𝜃 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
3
𝑑3 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝜃 (𝜃 − 1)(𝜃 − 2)𝑦
𝑑𝑥 3
Legendre’s equation:
An equation of the form
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦
𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 )𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1
1
𝑑1 𝑦
+ ⋯ … … . . +𝑎1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 1
Is called Cauchy’s homogenous equation.

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑧 𝑎
Put (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑒 𝑧 → 𝑧 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) → = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑎 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= → = → (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) =𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
→ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎𝜃𝑦 where 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 )2 2
= 𝑎2 𝜃 (𝜃 − 1)𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑3 𝑦
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 )3 2
= 𝑎3 𝜃(𝜃 − 1)(𝜃 − 2)𝑦
𝑑𝑥
Method of Undetermined Coefficients
Following is the table of trial solutions:
 Applications of Differential Equations
LCR circuits
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑖
• Voltage drop across inductance L is 𝐿 or 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
• Voltage drop across resistance R is 𝑅 or 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑞
• Voltage drop across capacitance C is
𝐶
• By Kirchhoff’s law,
sum of voltage drops across a closed circuit = E.M.F.
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
i.e. 𝐿 +𝑅 + = 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Simple Population Decay Model

If y is the amount of material at any time t, then
𝑑𝑦
= 𝐾𝑦
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝐾 is a constant.

Orthogonal Trajectories:
1. In Cartesian Coordinates:
i. Form an ordinary differential equation from
the given curve.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
ii. Replace 𝑑𝑥 by (− 𝑑𝑦) in the formed
differential equation.
iii. Solve the differential equation.

2. In Polar Coordinates:
 i. Form an ordinary differential equation from
the given curve.
𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑𝑟
ii. Replace 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 by (− 𝑟 𝑑𝜃) in the formed
differential equation.
iii. Solve the differential equation.

SOME IMPORTANT EXPANSIONS

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
• e =1+𝑥+
𝑥
+ + + + … … ….
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
• e−𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + − + − + … … ….
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6
• log(1+x) = 𝑥 − + − + − + … … ..
2 3 4 5 6
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑥6
• log(1-x) = −𝑥 − − − − − − … … ..
2 3 4 5 6
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟔
• cos x = 𝟏 − + − + … … ….
𝟐! 𝟒! 𝟔!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
• Sin x = 𝑥 − + − + … … … … … ….
3! 5! 7!
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟔
• cosh x = 𝟏 + + + + … … ….
𝟐! 𝟒! 𝟔!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
• Sinh x = 𝑥 + + + + … … … … … ….
3! 5! 7!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑥 − + − + … … … … … ….
3 5 7
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ −1 = 𝑥 + + + + … … … … … ….
3 5 7
• (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + x 4 −
…………………………………………
• (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 +
…………………………………………
• (1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x 2 − 4x 3 + 5x 4 −
…………………………………………
 • (1 − x)−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + 5x 4 +
…………………………………………

Partial Differential Equations

First Order and First Degree Partial Differential Equations

• Lagrange’s Equation
An equation of the form 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅 is called Lagrange’s
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
equation where 𝑝 = and 𝑞 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Auxiliary equations are:

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
• Integral Surface Passing Through a Given Curve
Let the given equation be of the form 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅
i. Solve given Lagrange’s equation 𝑃𝑝 + 𝑄𝑞 = 𝑅
ii. Let the two independent solutions obtained be
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴 and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐵
iii. Let the curve in parametric form be
𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)
iv. Therefore 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴 and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐵 become
𝑢(𝑥 (𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) = 𝐴 and 𝑣(𝑥 (𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) = 𝐵
v. Get a relation in terms of A and B by eliminating t from u
and v.
vi. Back substitute the values of A and B, in terms of x, y, z
from step ii, in the relation.
 • Orthogonal Surfaces
1. Type I: If the given family of surfaces is 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝜆
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
i. Find , ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
ii. Consider the equation 𝑝+ 𝑞=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This is Lagrange’s equation. It’s solution will give
family of orthogonal curves.

2. Type II: If the given family of surfaces is 𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0

i. Form a partial differential equation by eliminating f.
ii. Compare the formed PDE with Lagrange’s equation
Pp + Qq = R and find values of P, Q and R from
formed PDE.
iii. Solve the differential equation
𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 + 𝑅𝑑𝑧 = 0. It’s solution will give family
of orthogonal curves.

First Order and Higher Degree Partial Differential Equations

• Type I: If the PDE is of the form 𝑓(𝑝, 𝑞 ) = 0
i. Complete solution is given by 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐, where a
and b satisfy the given equation i.e., 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 0
ii. Solving 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 0, let we get 𝑏 = 𝜙(𝑎)
iii. Therefore, complete solution is 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝜙(𝑎)𝑦 + 𝑐
iv. These types of equations do not have a singular solution.
v. For General Solution, put 𝑐 = ℎ(𝑎) in
𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝜙(𝑎)𝑦 + 𝑐
∴ we get 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝜙(𝑎)𝑦 + ℎ(𝑎) --------- (*)
Differentiate (*) partially w.r.t. a.
𝜕𝑧
Thus we get = 𝑥 + 𝜙′(𝑎)𝑦 + ℎ′(𝑎) --------- (**)
𝜕𝑎
(*) and (**) give general solution.
 • Charpit’s Method
Let the PDE of the form 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑝, 𝑞 ) = 0
Auxiliary equations are:
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= = = =
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
+𝑝 +𝑞 −𝑝 −𝑞 − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑞

i. Find the value of p or q by using auxiliary equations.

ii. Put the obtained value in given equation 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑝, 𝑞 ) =
0. Thus find values of p and q in terms of x, y, z.
iii. Solve the ordinary differential equation 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑝𝑑𝑥 + 𝑞𝑑𝑦.

Higher Order Homogenous Partial Differential Equations

with Constant Coefficients
Let the partial differential equation be of the form 𝐹(𝐷, 𝐷′)𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

Auxiliary eq. is obtained by putting D=m and D’=1 in 𝐹(𝐷, 𝐷′) = 0.

Rules for Complementary Function:

1. If the roots of Auxiliary equation are distinct say 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , then

𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑓1 (𝑦 + 𝑚1 𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑥) + 𝑓3 (𝑦 + 𝑚3 𝑥)
2. If the roots of Auxiliary equation are repeated say 𝑚, 𝑚, 𝑚 , then
𝐶. 𝐹. = 𝑓1 (𝑦 + 𝑚𝑥) + 𝑥𝑓2 (𝑦 + 𝑚𝑥) + 𝑥 2 𝑓3 (𝑦 + 𝑚𝑥)
1
Rules for Particular integral: 𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)

1. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷′ = 𝑏 provided denominator does not become
zero. If denominator becomes zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 𝜕 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦
𝜕𝐷
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷′ = 𝑏 provided denominator does not become
zero. If denominator becomes zero, then
 1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 2 𝜕2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
𝜕𝐷2
Put 𝐷 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷′ = 𝑏 provided denominator does not become
zero.
2. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) 𝑜𝑟 sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
2
Put 𝐷 = −(𝑎 , 𝐷′ = −(𝑏 2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐷′ = −𝑎𝑏 provided
2 2)

denominator does not become zero. If denominator becomes

zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 𝜕 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
𝜕𝐷
2
Put 𝐷2 = −(𝑎2 ) , 𝐷′ = −(𝑏 2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐷′ = −𝑎𝑏 provided
denominator does not become zero. If denominator becomes
zero, then
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥 2 𝜕2
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
𝜕𝐷2
2
Put 𝐷2 = −(𝑎2 ) , 𝐷′ = −(𝑏 2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐷′ = −𝑎𝑏 provided
denominator does not become zero.
3. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 𝑚 𝑦 𝑛
1
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑥𝑚𝑦𝑛
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′)
Use Binomial Theorem i.e.
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 3
If |𝑥| < 1 , (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ … … … ….
2! 3!
(1 + 𝑥) −1 2 3 4
v. = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − ⋯ … … … ….
vi. (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ … … … ….
vii. (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 − ⋯ … … … ….
viii. (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 + ⋯ … … … ….

4. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∅(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)

1 1
𝑃. 𝐼. = ∅(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) = ∫ ∫ … . . ∫ ∅(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑢 … 𝑑𝑢
𝐹(𝐷,𝐷′) 𝐹(𝑎,𝑏)

(n times)
where 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 provided denominator does not become
zero, otherwise it becomes case of failure.
If it is a case of failure, then
 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛!
𝑃. 𝐼. = 𝑛 ∅(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)
𝑏
5. General Rule: Factorize 𝐹 (𝐷, 𝐷′) into linear factors of the
form (𝐷 − 𝑚𝐷′)
1
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑐 − 𝑚𝑥)𝑑𝑥
(𝐷−𝑚𝐷′)

Where c is to be replaced by (𝑦 + 𝑚𝑥) after integration.

• Classification of Partial Differential Equations:
Consider the partial differential equation of the form
𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝐴 2
+𝐵 +𝐶 +𝐷 +𝐸 = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Then the equation is:

i. Elliptic if (𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶) < 0
ii. Parabolic if (𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶) = 0
iii. Hyperbolic if (𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶) > 0