Respiratory System

Lesson objectives

 By the end of the lesson, the student is

expected to
– List organs associated with respiration
– State the general functions of the respiratory
system
– Describe the structure of the organs associated
with respiration
– Discuss the functions of the respiratory system
Composition of the Respiratory
system

 Made up of organs that supply oxygen and

eliminate carbon dioxide.
 Major structures include
– Nose, pharynx, larynx
– Trachea
– Bronchi
– Bronchioles
– Lungs
4
Composition of the Respiratory
system

 Other components of the respiratory system

are
– Pleura
– Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal
muscles)
Divisions of the Respiratory
system

 Anatomically, the respiratory system

can be divided into
– upper respiratory tract
– lower respiratory tract
 Physiologically, the respiratory system can
be divided into
– conducting zone
– respiratory zone
Upper respiratory tract

 Composed of structures outside the thoracic

cavity such as
– Nose
– Pharynx
– Larynx
– Upper trachea
Lower respiratory tract
 The region of the respiratory tract within the
thoracic cavity
 Consists of the
– Lower trachea
– Bronchi
– Bronchioles
– Lungs
Conducting zone

 Cavities and structures that transport air to

the site of gas exchange
 Consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal
bronchioles
 Deliver filtered, humidified and warmed air to
respiratory zone
 Respiratory zone

 Structures involved in the exchange of gas

between the blood and air
 Composed of
– Respiratory bronchioles
– Alveolar ducts
– Alveolar sacs
 Main site for gas exchange between air and
blood
10
 Functions of respiratory system

 Gas exchange
 Regulation of blood pH
 Sense of smell
 Voice production
 Protection

11
Structure of the Nose

 The passage through which air enters and

leaves the respiratory system
 Extends from the external nares to the
internal nares or choanae
 Made up of bones and cartilage covered with
skin
 Divided into external nose and internal nose.
External nose

 The visible portion on the face

 Consists of a supporting framework of bones
and hyaline cartilage covered with muscle
and skin and lined by a mucous membrane
 The bony framework consists of the frontal,
nasal and maxillary bones
External nose

 The cartilaginous framework of the external

nose consists of the
– septal nasal cartilage – forms the anterior portion
of the nasal septum
– lateral cartilages – inferior to the nasal bones
– alar cartilages – form a portion of the walls of the
nostrils
 The cartilaginous framework is flexible
Parts of the external nose

 Root
 Bridge
 Apex
 External naris
Internal nose
 Large cavity beyond the nasal vestibule in
the anterior aspect of the skull
 Lies inferior to the nasal bone and superior to
the mouth.
 The space within the internal nose is called
the nasal cavity.
 Lined with muscle and mucous membrane
(pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium)
Internal nose

 The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity

into two lateral halves known as nasal
fossae.
 The anterior portion of the nasal septum
consists primarily of hyaline cartilage.
 The remaining portion of the septum is
formed by the vomer, the perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid, maxillae, and palatine bones.
Internal nose

 Anteriorly, the internal

nose merges with the
external nose.
 Posteriorly, it
communicates with the
pharynx through the two
internal nares or
choanae.
Internal nose

 The roof of the nasal cavity is formed

– Anteriorly by the frontal bone and paired nasal
bones
– Medially by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
bone
– Posteriorly by the sphenoid bone
 The floor of the nasal cavity is formed by
– The palatine bones and palatine processes of the
maxillae (the hard palate)
Internal nose

 The lateral walls of the internal nose are

formed by the ethmoid, maxillary, lacrimal,
palatine, and nasal bones
 Three shelf-like or scroll-like bones project
from the lateral wall of each nasal cavity to
form the
– Superior conchae or turbinate
– Middle conchae or turbinate
– Inferior conchae or turbinate
Internal nose

 The conchae subdivide into a series of

groove-like passageways to form
– Superior meatus
– Middle meatus
– Inferior meatus
 The arrangement of conchae and meatuses
increases surface area in the internal nose
 The posterior wall of the internal nose is
formed by the posterior wall of the pharynx
22
Openings into the internal nose

 Anterior nares or nostrils – opens from

outside into the nasal cavity. It has hairs.
 Posterior nares – open from the nasal cavity
into the pharynx.
 Ducts from paranasal sinuses – axillary,
frontal, sphenoidal and ethmoidal sinuses
 Nasolacrimal ducts
 Blood supply to the nose
– by the internal and external carotid arteries.
 Nerve supply
– The olfactory nerves
Functions of the Nose

 Passage for entry and exit of air from the

lungs.
 Conditions the inspired air (filters, warms, and
humidifies the air)
 Detects olfactory stimuli
 It serves as a resonating chamber that
amplifies the voice
 Pharynx

 Funnel-shaped muscular tube that extends

from the internal nares or choanae to the
level of the cricoid cartilage
 About 13cm long and it connects the nasal
and oral cavities to the larynx and
oesophagus respectively at the base of the
skull

26
Pharynx

 Lies posteriorly to
the nasal and oral
cavities, superiorly to
the larynx, and
anteriorly to the
cervical vertebrae
Pharynx

 The pharyngeal wall consists of a group of

skeletal muscles arranged into the outer
circular layer and the inner longitudinal layer
 The outer circular layer comprises the
superior, middle, and inferior pharyngeal
constrictor muscles.
 The inner longitudinal layer consists of
palatopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus, and
stylopharyngeus muscles.
Pharynx

 The lumen is lined with mucous membranes.

 Has both respiratory and digestive functions.
 Based on location and function, the pharynx
is divided into three regions:
– Nasopharynx
– Oropharynx
– Laryngopharynx
Nasopharynx

 Upper part of the pharynx that has

respiratory function only
 Location
– Posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the
soft palate
 Five openings in nasopharyngeal wall:
– two internal nares
– two lateral auditory canal (Eustachian tubes)
– opening into the oropharynx.
Nasopharynx

 Exchanges small amounts of air with the

auditory tubes to equalize air pressure
between the pharynx and the middle ear.
 The posterior nasopharyngeal wall houses
the pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids).
– The pharyngeal tonsils are most prominent in
children up to 7 years thereafter they atrophy.
33
Nasopharynx

 Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium
 During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula
close off the nasopharynx to prevent food
from entering the nasopharynx.
Oropharynx

 Middle part of the pharynx

 Lies posteriorly to the oral cavity and extends
from the soft palate to the level of the hyoid
bone i.e. upper part of the third cervical
vertebra (C3).
 The soft palate separates the nasopharynx
and the oropharynx.
 It has one opening from the mouth (fauces)
Oropharynx

 Palatine and lingual tonsils are found in the

oropharynx.
 Lined with non-keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium because it is subjected
to abrasion by food particles and chemical
trauma.
 The oropharynx has both respiratory and
digestive functions
Laryngopharynx

 The lower part of the pharynx.

 Begins at the level of the hyoid bone.
 The inferior end opens into the oesophagus
posteriorly and the larynx anteriorly.
 The respiratory and digestive pathways are
lined with non-keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.
 The epiglottis prevents food from entering the larynx.
 Blood supply
– Branches of the facial artery supply arterial blood
to the pharynx
– Internal jugular veins drain the venous blood.
 Nerve supply
– From the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Functions of the Pharynx

 The circular and longitudinal muscle layers of

the pharynx assist in deglutition (swallowing).
 Serves as the passageway for air and food.
 Provides a resonating chamber
 Provides protection i.e. the pharyngeal and
palatine tonsils produce antibodies against antigens.
 Warms and humidifies air.
 Larynx

 A short passageway that connects the

laryngopharynx to the trachea.
 Lies anterior to the oesophagus at the level
of the 4th and 6th cervical vertebrae (C4–C6)
 Extends from the root of the tongue to the
trachea
 Almost triangular and about 3.5cm long in
adult females and 4.5cm in males
43
Larynx

 Laryngeal wall is composed of 9 cartilages

connected by ligaments and muscles
 The cartilaginous wall of the larynx is divided
into
– 3 unpaired large cartilages (thyroid, cricoid, and
epiglottis)
– 3 paired smaller cartilages (arytenoid, cuneiform,
and corniculate).
Thyroid cartilage

 Consists of two flat plates

of hyaline cartilage
(laminae) which are fused
to form the laryngeal
prominence
 The laryngeal
prominence forms the
triangular-shaped anterior
wall of the larynx.
Thyroid cartilage

 Superiorly, the
thyroid cartilage
has a V-shaped
notch known as
the thyroid notch
Thyroid cartilage

 Posteriorly, the thyroid cartilage is

incomplete and forms two slender processes
called superior and inferior cornua or horns
extending from the lamina
Thyroid cartilage

 The upper part of the thyroid cartilage is lined

with stratified squamous epithelium and the
lower part is lined with columnar epithelium
like the trachea.
Cricoid cartilage

 Signet-shaped ring of hyaline cartilage that

forms the inferior border of the larynx.
 Completely encircles the larynx with the
narrow part anteriorly and the broad part
posteriorly.
 The broad part articulates with the arytenoid
cartilages.
Cricoid cartilage

 The cricoid cartilage is attached to the first

tracheal ring by the cricotracheal ligament.
 The cricothyroid ligament connects the
cricoid cartilage to the thyroid cartilage.
 The cricoid cartilage is lined with ciliated
columnar epithelium.
 The lower border of the cricoid cartilage
marks the end of the upper respiratory tract.
Epiglottis

 A thin leaf-shaped piece of fibro-elastic

cartilage attached to the inner surface of the
thyroid cartilage below the thyroid notch
 Its “stem” is the tapered inferior portion
attached to the anterior rim of the thyroid
cartilage and hyoid bone.
 The broad superior “leaf” portion is
unattached and is free to move up and down
like a trap door.
55
Epiglottis

 Lined with stratified squamous epithelium.

 During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx
rise
– Elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food
or drink.
– Elevation of the larynx moves the epiglottis down
to form a lid over the glottis, closing it off.
57
Arytenoid cartilages

 Paired piece of hyaline cartilage located at

the posterior superior border of the cricoid
cartilage.
 Roughly pyramidal in shape and form part of
the posterior wall of the larynx.
 Form synovial joints with the cricoid cartilage
and have a wide range of mobility.
Arytenoid cartilages

 Give attachment to the vocal cords and

muscles.
 Lined with ciliated columnar epithelium.
Corniculate cartilages

 Paired, horn-shaped pieces of elastic

cartilage
 Located at the apex of each arytenoid
cartilage.
Cuneiform cartilages

 Paired, club-shaped elastic cartilages

anterior to the corniculate cartilages
 Support the vocal folds and lateral aspects of
the epiglottis.
Laryngeal ligament

 Extrinsic ligaments
– link the larynx to other
structures
– Thyrohyoid ligament
connects the thyroid
cartilage to the hyoid
bone
– Cricotracheal ligament
joins the cricoid cartilage
to the trachea
Laryngeal ligament

 Intrinsic ligaments
– Join the nine cartilages of the laryngeal wall to
each other
– Examples: thyroepiglottic ligament, hyoepiglottic
ligament, and cricothyroid ligament.
64
Laryngeal muscles

 Extrinsic muscles
– Connect the laryngeal cartilages to other
structures in the throat
– Elevate or depress the larynx during swallowing
 Intrinsic muscles
– Connect the laryngeal cartilages to one another
– Move the individual components of the larynx
during breathing and phonation.
Lining of the larynx

 Superior to the vocal folds

– non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
 Inferior to the vocal folds
– pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
  Blood supply
– Arterial blood supply: superior and inferior
laryngeal arteries
– Venous drainage: thyroid veins into the internal
jugular vein.
 Innervation of larynx
– Recurrent laryngeal nerves and superior cervical
sympathetic ganglia.

67
Functions of the Larynx

 Produces vocalizations (speech)

 Passage way for air
 Filters, humidifies, and warms inspired air as
the air travels through the larynx.
 Protection of the lower respiratory tract.
– The epiglottis rises to occlude the airway and
ensure that food passes into the oesophagus
 Trachea

 A tubular passageway for air

 About 12cm long and 2.5cm in diameter
 Located anterior to the oesophagus
 Extends from the larynx to the superior
border of the 5th thoracic vertebra (T5), where
it divides at the carina into right and left
primary bronchi

69
70
Trachea

 The tracheal wall is made up of four layers of

tissues namely:
– Adventitia
– Cartilaginous layer
– Submucosa layer
– Mucosa layer
Adventitia

 Consists of areola connective tissues that

joins the trachea to surrounding tissues.
Cartilaginous layer

 Consists of 16–20 incomplete rings of

hyaline cartilage that resemble the letter C.
 Stacked on each other and joined by
fibroelastic connective tissue.
 The open part of each C-shaped cartilage
ring faces the oesophagus posteriorly and is
spanned by fibromuscular membrane
Cartilaginous layer

 The solid C-shaped cartilaginous rings

provide a semi-rigid support that keeps the
trachea open at all times.
Submucosa layer

 This is made up of areola connective tissue

that contains seromucous glands and their
ducts.
Mucosa layer

 Composed of pseudostratified ciliated

columnar epithelium and an underlying layer
of lamina propria that contains elastic and
reticular fibres
 Dust particles stick to the mucus and the cilia
move them upwards to the pharynx.
Blood and Nerve Supply

 The arterial blood supply is by the inferior

thyroid and bronchial arteries.
 The venous return is by the inferior thyroid
veins in the brachiocephalic veins.
 The parasympathetic and sympathetic fibres
supply the trachea.
Bronchi

 The trachea bifurcates at the superior border

of the 5th thoracic vertebra into the right and
left primary bronchi
– Right primary bronchus goes into the right lung
– Left primary bronchus enters the left lung
 The right primary bronchus is more vertical,
shorter, and wider than the left.
Bronchi

 After entering the right lung,

– the right primary bronchus divides into superior,
middle, and inferior secondary bronchi.
– the left primary bronchi, about 5cm long, divides
into the superior and inferior secondary bronchi
 The secondary bronchi subdivide to form
tertiary bronchi.
Bronchi

 Each bronchiole in turn branches repeatedly

to form 50-80 terminal bronchioles.
 Each terminal bronchiole also divides into
two or more smaller respiratory bronchioles.
 Each respiratory bronchiole is divided into 2
to 10 elongated, thin-walled alveolar ducts.
Bronchi

 The alveolar duct has a non-ciliated simple

squamous epithelium wall ending in alveolar
sacs
 This extensive branching from the trachea
resembles an inverted tree and is commonly
referred to as the bronchial tree.
Bronchi

 Branches of pulmonary artery closely follow

the bronchial tree on their way to the alveoli.
 This forms a network of blood capillaries that
surrounds these alveoli.
 The barrier between the alveolar sac and
blood is called the respiratory membrane
Bronchi

 The respiratory membrane consists of

squamous alveolar cells, squamous
endothelial cells of the capillary, and their
shared basement membrane.
86
Bronchi

 The main bronchi are composed of the same

tissue as the trachea and are lined with
ciliated columnar epithelium.
 Bronchioles have a ciliated cuboidal
epithelium and a thick smooth muscle layer
responsive to stimulation and irritation.
 Blood Supply
 Right and left bronchial arteries
 Venous drainage is by bronchial vein
 Nerve
– Vagus nerve
Lungs

 Cone-shaped organs located in the thoracic

cavity
 Separated from each other by the heart and
other structures in the mediastinum
 Each lung is covered and protected by the
pleura
Lungs

 Due to the space occupied by the heart, the

left lung is about 10% smaller than the right
lung.
 The right lung is thicker and broader but
shorter than the left lung because the
diaphragm is higher on the right side
 The lungs have an apex, base, and surfaces
Lungs

 Apex of the lungs

– The narrow superior
portion of the lung
– Lies superior to the
medial third of the
clavicles and is the only
area that can be palpated
Lungs

 Base of the lungs

– The broad inferior portion of the
lung
– Concave and fits over the convex
area of the diaphragm
– Extends from the 6th costal
cartilage anteriorly to the spinous
process of the 10th thoracic
vertebra posteriorly.
Surfaces of the lung

 Medial (mediastinal) surface

 Lateral surface
 Anterior surface
 Posterior surface
Medial (mediastinal) surface

 The media surface is concave

 Each contains the hilum through which
bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves enter and exit
 These structures are held together by the
pleura and connective tissue and constitute
the root of lung
96
Lateral surface of the lungs

 The lateral surface is convex

 Lies against the coastal cartilage, ribs and
intercostal muscles
 Matches the rounded curvature of the ribs.
Fissures, Lobes, and Lobules

 Fissures divide the lungs into lobes

 Oblique fissure
– Both lungs have an oblique fissure extending
inferiorly and anteriorly
 Horizontal fissure
– the right lung also has a horizontal fissure
Fissures, Lobes, and Lobules

 The left lung is divided by the oblique fissure

into the superior and inferior lobes.
 In the right lung
– the superior part of the oblique fissure separates
the superior lobe from the inferior lobe
– the inferior part of the oblique fissure separates
the inferior lobe from the middle lobe, which is
bordered superiorly by the horizontal fissure
Lungs

 Right lung has 3 lobes

– Upper lobe
– Middle lobe
– Lower lobe
 Left lung has 2 lobes
– Upper lobe
– Lower lobe
Lungs

 Each lobe is also subdivided into lobules.

 The lobules are separated from each other
by interlobular tissue composed of alveolar
and elastic tissue.
 The lungs are responsible for the exchange
of gases between the blood and air.
Lungs

 Arterial blood is supplied by pulmonary and

bronchial arteries.
 The bronchial veins drain the venous blood.
 The nerve supply is the vagus nerve.
Activity

 Where are the lungs located?

 Define each of the following parts of a lung:
– Base
– Apex
– Costal surface
– Medial surface
– Hilum
– Root, lobe, and lobule.
Pleura

 Formed by two layers of serous membrane

that enclose the lungs.
 The visceral pleura lines each lobe and dips
into the tissues between the lobes.
 The parietal pleura lines the inner part of the
thoracic cavity and the thoracic surface of the
diaphragm.
Pleura

 The visceral and the parietal layers are

separated by a potential space called the
pleural cavity
 The pleural cavity is filled with serous fluid
known as the pleural fluid.
 The pleural fluid lubricates the two surfaces
of the pleural cavity, thereby preventing
friction between them during breathing.
Respiratory muscles

 The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm

are the main muscles of respiration in normal
quiet breathing
 Muscles of the neck, shoulder, and abdomen
assist intercostal muscles and diaphragm
during difficult or deep breathing
Intercostal muscles

 A group of intrinsic chest wall muscles

occupying the intercostal spaces
 Consists of
– the external intercostal muscles
– the internal intercostal muscles
Intercostal muscles

 External intercostal muscles

– Originate from the lower border of the rib above
and insert ventrocaudally at the upper border of
the rib below
 Internal intercostal muscles
– Originate from upper border of the rib below and
insert ventrocranially at the lower border of the rib
above
Intercostal muscles

 Intercostal muscles tense the intercostal

spaces during deep inspiration and support
the breathing mechanism
 Intercostal nerves stimulate the intercostal
muscles to contract
 Contraction of external intercostal muscles
elevate the ribs (inspiratory breathing
muscles)
Intercostal muscles

 Contraction of internal intercostal muscles

lowers the ribs, functioning as the expiratory
breathing muscles
Diaphragm

 Dome-shaped structure separating the

thoracic and abdominal cavities.
 It forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and
the roof of the abdominal cavity.
 The diaphragm consists of a central tendon.
Diaphragm

 Muscle fibres radiate from the diaphragm

and attached to the lower ribs, sternum and
vertebral column.
 The diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic
nerves.