UNIT – 3

COMPUTER NETWORK AND INTERNET

Networking
A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication
protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources, data and
applications with each other.

Protocols
A protocol is a standard set of rules that allow electronic devices to communicate with each
other. These rules include what type of data may be transmitted, what commands are used
to send and receive data, and how data transfers are confirmed.

Connecting Media
Computers and other computing devices are connected by different kinds of media such as
 Twisted-Pair Cables
 Coaxial Cables
 Fibre Optic Cables

Twisted-Pair Cables

These wires consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. It is the most widely used
medium for telecommunication. It consists of four pairs of copper cabling that can be
utilized for both voice and data transmission. The twisted wires help to reduce crosstalk and
electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed of these cables varies from 2 million bits
per second (bps) to 100 million bps. They are cheap, easy to install and use. However, these
cables easily pick up noise signals when their length extends beyond 100 metres.
Coaxial Cables

These cables are highly preferred connecting media for cable television systems and for
connecting the computers within an office building or within short distances to form a
network. This cable consists of a single copper conductor at its centre, encapsulated inside a
plastic layer that provides insulation between the conductor and a braided metal shield
(Copper mesh). The metal shield blocks any interference from the outside environment and
is again protected by an outside shield of plastic material. This cable is highly resistant to
signal interference and can support greater cable lengths between network devices than
twisted-pair cables. Its transmission speed varies from 200 million to more than 500 million
bps. However, this cable is difficult to install.

Fibre Optic Cables

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This cable is constructed in several layers. The core is the actual glass or fibre conductor
which is covered with a refractive coating called cladding, which causes the light to travel in
a controlled path along the entire length of the glass core. The next layer is a protective
covering or an insulating jacket made by Teflon or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to protect the
core and coating from any kind of sustaining damage. It also prevents light from escaping
the assembly. These cables carry data as pulses of light. They transmit light that can travel
over extended distances. The transmission speed of this cable is hundreds of times more
than that of coaxial cables and thousands of times more than twisted-pair cables.

Data Transmission Modes

The data transmission mode refers to the direction of flow of data. Based on this
characteristic, a connection can be further classified into three categories:-
 Simplex
 Half-Duplex
 Full-Duplex

Simplex
Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow only in one direction, i.e.,
the communication is unidirectional. In this mode, a sender can only send data but can’t
receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but can’t send it.

[Simplex Mode]

e.g.  Communication between the monitor and a keyboard is a basic example of simplex
transmission mode where the keyboard is the input and the monitor is the output.

Half-Duplex
Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both directions but
in one direction at a time. In other words, each station can both transmit and receive the
data but not at the same time. When one device is sending the other can only receive and
vice-versa.
 [Half-Duplex Mode]

e.g.  A walkie-talkie is a perfect example of half duplex transmission. The working

functionality of walkie-talkie is that when one person speaks from one end, another person
listens from another end. After a break, then another person speaks and the first person on
the other end listens. Simultaneous speaking is not possible since this will create a distortion
of sound and both the receiver and the transmitter will not able to comprehend the
information.

Full-Duplex
Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow in both directions at
the same time. It is bi-directional in nature. It is two-way communication in which both the
stations can transmit and receive the data simultaneously.

[Full-Duplex Mode]

e.g.  The most common example of this mode of transmission is the telephone. When two
people speak or communicate through telephone by using a telephone line, both has the
ability to talk and listen simultaneously.
Network Topologies
Network topology refers to the actual geometric layout of computers and other devices
connected to the network.
The various network topologies are:-
 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology

Bus Topology

In a Bus topology, each computer or server is connected to a single cable. Hence, all the
nodes (computers and other devices) share the same communication channel. When a node
wants to send a message to another node, it creates a message and adds the address of the
recipient to it. Then, it checks whether the line is free or not. If the line is free it places the
message on the line (transmission channel), else it waits until the channel becomes
available.

When the message is placed on the line, each and every node connected to it checks the
destination address mentioned on it. If the node’s address doesn’t match the intended
address, it ignores the message. The message is picked up and opened only by the
addressee. The receiving device also sends an acknowledgement to the sending device
before it frees the line.

Advantages
 Easy to install and connect a new device to the network
 Inexpensive, as only one cable is required
 Failure of a single node doesn’t affect the network
Disadvantages
 Failure in the cable results in shutting down the entire network
 In case of network shut down, it becomes very difficult to identify the problem
 As the number of nodes increases, the speed of the network slows down.

Star Topology

The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. In this
topology, each node is connected to a central Hub (or a Server) with a point-to-point
connection. The Hub is the host node that controls communication between other nodes.
The hub acts as a signal repeater. When a node has to send a message to another node
connected to the network, it will first have to send that data to the hub. The hub will
regenerate the message and then send it to the destination node.

Advantages
 Easy to install & new nodes can be connected easily
 Network doesn’t get disturbed when any device is added or removed from it
 Easy to detect faults.

Disadvantages
 Requires more cable length
 More expensive because of the cost of hub, cables, etc.
 If the central hub fails, the entire network is shut down
Ring Topology

In a ring topology, all the nodes are connected to each other in the shape of a closed loop
so that every node is connected directly to two other nodes, one on either side of it. In this
network messages travel through the ring in a circular fashion in the same direction. Here,
each device acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device
incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data to the
next device connected to it in the ring. A node receives the message from any of its two
adjacent nodes. Then it checks the destination address. If the message is addressed to it
then it accepts the data and processes it, otherwise it just regenerates the signals and
passes it to the next node in sequence.

Advantages
 Easy to install
 Can span over larger distances
 Every node has equal chance to transmit data

Disadvantages
 Causes delay in communication
 In case of network failure, its difficult to diagnose the fault
 If one node fails then the entire network is shut down because the ring is not
complete
 Difficult to add or remove nodes from the network
Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every node is connected to every other node on the network using a
separate physical link. Mesh topology involves the concept of routes. In this network, a
message can take any of the several possible paths from the source to the destination. For
example, if a message has to be sent from A to B via C, if node C fails then the message can
be sent to B via any other node in the network.

Advantages
 Failure of a node doesn’t affect the entire network
 Communication is fast as there is a direct link between the nodes
 Each connection can have its own load, so the traffic problem is eliminated
 Ensures security of data because every message travels along a dedicated link
 It is easy to detect network errors

Disadvantages
 It is the most expensive network as, for n nodes, n x (n-1)/2 physical links (Cables) are
required
 It is difficult to install

Types of Network
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN was first invented for communication between two computers. Later, with the growth
of technology LAN was used connect computers and devices in a limited geographical area
such as schools, colleges, home, computer lab, office building, etc. LANs are typically owned,
controlled and managed by a single person or organization.

LANs are two types – Wired and Wireless. A wired LAN uses the Ethernet cable to physically
connect all computers on the network. The wireless LAN uses radio waves for
communication and eliminates the need of wires. LANs are preferred networks because they
have higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, etc.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WANs span a large geographic area such as a city, country or even intercontinental
distances using a communication channel that combines many types of media such as
telephone lines, cables and air waves. It can be created by linking LANs together.
When individual networks are connected together to form a larger network or a bigger
WAN, then the resulting network is called an internetwork or internet. Moreover, when all
WANs across the world are connected to form a global network then it is called internet.
The internet is the largest WAN spanning the earth. For example, a company with offices in
Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai might have a LAN set up at each office. These
individual LANs can be connected through leased telephone lines to ease communication,
thereby forming a WAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network that interconnects computers and other devices in a geographical area
or region larger than that covered by a large LAN, but smaller than the area covered by a
WAN.

It may be formed by interconnecting several LANs by bridging them with backbone lines
with the help of fibre optic cables. MANs use technologies adopted from both LANs and
WANs. It typically covers an area of 5-50 square km. It is a high-speed network that allows
sharing of regional resources. Though MAN is not a very widely used network, it has its own
importance for some government bodies and organizations on larger scale.

Networking Devices
These are communication devices that enable the users to create a network. These devices
are also known as network equipment, intermediate systems (IS) or interworking unit (IWU).
Commonly used networking devices are:-
 Hub
 Repeater
 Switch
 Bridge
  Router
 Gateway
 Network Interface Card (NIC)

Hub
Every computer on the network is directly connected with the hub. When data packets arrive
at a hub, it broadcast them to all the devices connected to it. Hence, every device picks the
message but only the destined device processes the data packets and all the other
computers just discard them. The main function of the hub is to amplify the signal and
broadcast them to all the devices connected to it.

Repeater
A repeater is a device that receives electronic signals, cleans them and retransmits them at a
higher power level. Signals transmitted over cable tend to degrade over long distances.
Repeaters are needed so that the signal can travel longer distances.

Switch
Switches contain many ports to connect different network segments. They are similar to
hubs, but offer greater performance. When a network contains a large number of devices,
switches are needed instead of hubs to make sure the communications between devices
does not slow down. Contrary to hubs, switches send the data it receives only to specific
ports.

Bridge
Bridges are networking devices that divide up the network into different segments to
manage the amount of traffic. This prevents unnecessary traffic from entering other parts of
the network and reduces congestion. As a network becomes more complex, bridges make
sure your network speed doesn't drop dramatically.

Router
A router is an intelligent device that routes the data to the destination computers. It is
basically used to connect two logically and physically different networks such as two LANs,
two WANs & a LAN with WAN. Cisco routers are the most widely used routers all over the
world. The major task of the router is to route the data packets between two networks on
the best possible path for fast data transmission. These days, even wireless routers are being
widely used.
Gateway
A gateway interfaces networks that use different protocols. Only gateways make it possible
to connect networks using different protocols. Since the Internet and many other computer
networks use the same TCP/IP protocols, routers are sometimes all that is needed for a
particular network. However, any network that also includes a mainframe system will need a
gateway since this type of network uses different communication protocols.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot
be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a
dedicated network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller,
network adapter or LAN adapter. NIC allows both wired and wireless communications. NIC
allows communications between computers connected via local area network (LAN) as well
as communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).

Internet Services
Today, the internet has become a part of not only the big organizations, universities, offices
and has become the need of home users such as students all over the world. In this era, life
without internet has become unimaginable. Different internet services are:
 Electronic Mail (e-mail)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Chatting
 Internet Conferencing
 Electronic Newspaper
 World Wide Web (WWW)
 Online Shopping

Electronic Mail (e-mail)

Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic mode over the internet.
It offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of distributing information among
people.

 E-Mail Address
Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account. This name is known as
E-mail address. Different users can send and receive messages according to the e-mail
address.
E-mail is generally of the form username@domainname. For example,
[email protected] is an e-mail address where rupakkumar is username and gmail.com
is domain name.

 The username and the domain name are separated by @ (at) symbol.
 E-mail addresses are not case sensitive.
 Spaces are not allowed in e-mail address.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File transfer protocol (FTP) is a set of rules that computers follow for the transferring of files
from one system to another over the internet. It may be used by a business to transfer files
from one computer system to another, or websites may use FTP to upload or download files
from a website's server.

Chatting
It is a very popular service of the internet that allows two or more online users to talk using
an instant messenger. Chatting helps users to stay connected with people in business or
family who live many miles away. Though chatting can be fun and entertaining, users must
take protective measures to avoid internet stalkers (who watches and follows).

Internet Conferencing
Internet conferencing or web conferencing is one of the online services by which you can
start a live meeting or conference virtually. All you need in this case is a stable internet
connection, a device and a software or tool by which you will be able to connect to other
clients, partners or employees for the meeting. Though quite different from that of
traditional meetings which are held in a room, internet conference provides all the essential
facilities. Whether you want to share your screen with other people in the conference or any
files and documents, you will be able to do that. In fact, it is quite convenient and cost
effective than traditional meetings.

Electronic Newspaper
An electronic or online newspaper is the online version of a newspaper, either as a stand-
alone publication or as the online version of a printed periodical. Online newspapers are
much like hard-copy newspapers and have the same legal boundaries such as privacy and
copyright.
World Wide Web (WWW)
World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or web pages
stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the internet. These
websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the content
of these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as
computers, laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval
and display of text and media to your device. A web page is given an online address called a
Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A particular collection of web pages that belong to a
specific URL is called a website, e.g., www.facebook.com, www.google.com, etc. So, the
World Wide Web is like a huge electronic book whose pages are stored on multiple servers
across the world.

Online Shopping
Online shopping is a form of electronic commerce which allows consumers to directly buy
goods or services from a seller over the Internet using a web browser or a mobile app.
Consumers find a product of interest by visiting the website of the retailer directly or by
searching among alternative vendors using a shopping search engine, which displays the
same product's availability and pricing at different e-retailers. As of 2020, customers can
shop online using a range of different computers and devices, including desktop computers,
laptops, tablet computers and smartphones.

Different Types of Internet Connectivity & ISP [Internet Service Provider]

Cable: Most Common High-Speed Internet Connection

Cable is the most common type of high-speed Internet used today. You can easily add
Internet service to your current cable package for a nominal monthly fee. Most cable
companies offer different packages depending on the speed you require for your Internet
needs and the number of computers in your house that will run off of it. They’ll usually offer
high-speed Internet at a reduced cost if purchased as part of a package deal.

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): One of the Cheaper Options of Internet Service
DSL Internet connection is usually provided by your local phone company and can also be
modified to provide Internet service to a certain number of computers in your home. The
speed is slightly different than a cable modem provides, but the cost may make the
difference worthwhile. Another advantage to DSL over cable is you’re not sharing the
modem line with other subscribers in your area. The line is hardwired directly to your house,
so there is no “down time” when a lot of people are logged on. You might need to have at
least one phone line connected through the company in order to add DSL.

WiFi: Most Convenient High-Speed Connection

WiFi is the best option if you have a laptop or handheld devices you want to use around the
house. You can set the WiFi connection up on all of your wireless devices and use them
from anywhere in the house, perhaps even outside if the signal is strong enough. You need
to be careful to keep your WiFi protected from hackers. Be sure to set up a password that
only you know.

3G/4G: High-Speed Wireless Connection for Smartphone and Devices

If you already have a 3G or 4G cell phone, you can set your other wireless devices directly to
the connection and use them anywhere you take your cell phone. If you use your laptop or
handheld device on the road a lot, using your high speed cell is the best connection for you.

Satellite: Viable Option for Those without Cable and DSL

Satellite service is great if you live in a rural area that doesn’t provide cable modem or DSL
service. You can set up a satellite on you property and choose from several Satellite Internet
Plans to log on to the Internet. The speed is usually matched to the speed of a cable
modem, and will allow you to connect more than one computer to your service.