OUTDOOR AND INDOOR

CHANNEL MODELLING
The Time-Invariant Two-Path Model
• Consider the simplest possible case – time-invariant propagation
along two paths. (keep multipath and fading aside for a while)
• First, consider a single wave. Let the transmit signal be a sinusoidal
wave:

• If the run length between TX and RX is d, the received signal can be

described as:
• Now consider the case that the transmit signal gets to the RX via two
different propagation paths, created by two different Interacting
Objects.
• These paths have different runtimes:
• We assume that both waves are vertically polarized, and have
amplitudes E1 and E2 at the reference position r = 0.

• We assume here that the two waves arriving at the RX position r are
two plane waves whose absolute amplitudes do not vary as a function
of RX position.
• We see locations of both constructive
and destructive interference – i.e.,
location-dependent fading.
• There are fading dips where the phase
differences due to the different runtimes
are exactly 180◦.
• If the RX is at a point of destructive
interference, it sees a signal whose total
amplitude is the difference of the
amplitudes of the constituting waves.
• In the points of constructive interference,
the total amplitude is the sum of the
amplitudes of the constituting waves.
The Time-Variant Two-Path Model
• In general, the runtime (path length) difference between the different
propagation paths changes with time. This change can be due to
movements of the TX, the RX, the IOs, or any combination.
• The RX then “sees” a time-varying interference pattern.
• The movement of the RX also leads to a shift of the received
frequency, called the Doppler shift.

±
• The frequency of this beating envelope is equal to the frequency
difference between the two carriers – i.e., the difference of the two
Doppler shifts for two paths.
• Summarizing, the fading rate in the two-path model by two equivalent considerations:
• 1. We superimpose two incident waves, plot the resulting interference pattern (field
strength “mountains and valleys”), and count the number of fading dips per second that
an RX sees when moving through that pattern.
• 2. Alternatively, we can think of superimposing two signals with different Doppler shifts
at the receive antenna, and determine the fading rate from the beat frequency – i.e., the
difference of the Doppler shifts of the two waves.

• Doppler frequency is thus an important parameter of the channel, even though it is so

small.
• Doppler frequency is a measure for the rate of change of the channel.
• Furthermore, the superposition of many slightly Doppler-shifted signals leads to phase
shifts of the total received signal that can impair the reception of angle-modulated
signals
Small-Scale Fading without a Dominant
Component
• Following these basic considerations utilizing the two-path model, we
now investigate a more general case of multipath propagation.
• consider a radio channel with many IOs and a moving RX. Due to the
large number of IOs, a deterministic description of the radio channel
is not efficient any more, which is why we take refuge in stochastic
description methods.
• A "stochastic channel model" refers to a mathematical representation of a
wireless communication channel that uses statistical properties and random
variations to model the signal transmission, capturing effects like fading,
shadowing, noise, and interference through probability distributions
A Computer Experiment
• The signals from several IOs are incident onto an RX that moves over a
small area.
• The IOs are distributed approximately uniformly around the receiving
area. They are also assumed to be sufficiently far away so that all received
waves are homogeneous plane waves, and that movements of the RX
within the considered area do not change the amplitudes of these waves.
• The different distances and strength of the interactions are taken into
account by assigning a random phase and a random amplitude to each
wave. We are then creating eight constituting waves Ei with absolute
amplitudes |ai|, angle of incidence (with respect to the x-axis) φi and
phase φi :
• now superimpose the constituting waves, using the complex baseband notation,
The total complex field strength E thus results from the sum of the complex field
strengths of the constituting waves.
• consider the statistics of the field strengths occurring in that area the values Re{E}
follow, to a good approximation, a zero-mean Gaussian distribution.
• This is a consequence of the central limit theorem: when superimposing N
statistically independent random variables, none of which is dominant, the
associated probability density function (pdf) approaches a normal distribution for
N →∞
• The behavior of most RXs is determined by the received (absolute)
amplitude (magnitude).
• thus need to investigate the distribution of the envelope of the received
signal, corresponding to the magnitude of the (complex) field strength
phasor.
a three-dimensional representation of the amplitudes and the statistics of the amplitude over
that area along with previous figure.
• also exhibits a plot of a Rayleigh pdf.
• A Rayleigh distribution describes the magnitude
of a complex stochastic variable whose real and
imaginary parts are independent and normally
distributed
Mathematical Derivation of the Statistics of
Amplitude and Phase
• Consider a scenario where N homogeneous plane waves (MPCs) have
been created by reflection/scattering from different IOs.
• The IOs and the TX do not move, and the RX moves with a velocity v.
• Assume that the absolute amplitudes of the MPCs do not change over
the region of observation.
• The sum of the squared amplitudes is thus:
• However, the phases φi vary strongly, and are thus approximated as
• random variables that are uniformly distributed in the range [0, 2π].
The real part of the received field strength due to the ith MPC is thus
|ai|cos(φi), the imaginary part is|ai| sin(φi ).
• we need to consider the Doppler shift for computation of the total field
strength E(t).
• Rewriting this in terms of in-phase and quadrature-phase components in
real passband notation, we obtain

• Both the in-phase and the quadrature-phase component are the sum of
many random variables, none of which dominate (i.e., | ai |<< Cp ).
• It follows from the central limit theorem that the pdf of such a sum is
a normal (Gaussian) distribution, regardless of the exact pdf of the
constituent amplitudes.
• A zero-mean Gaussian random variable has the pdf:
• The PDF of time varying channel is the pdf product of amplitude and phase
of the received signal.
• The pdf is a product of a pdf for ψ – namely, a uniform distribution:

• and a pdf for r – namely, a Rayleigh distribution:

• For r<0 the pdf is zero, as absolute amplitudes are by definition positive.
Properties of the Rayleigh Distribution

where the bar denotes expected value

• The cumulative distribution function, cdf(r), is defined as the
probability that the realization of the random variable has a value
smaller than r. The cdf is thus the integral of the pdf:
• answer the following question:

• “Given a minimum receive power or field strength required for

successful communications, how large does the mean power have to
be in order to ensure that communication is successful in x % of all
situations?” In other words, how large does the fading margin have to
be?
• The cdf gives by definition the probability that a certain field strength
level is not exceeded. In order to achieve an x % outage probability,
it follows that:

• we can immediately compute the mean square

 Normal CDF
The figure shows the CDF plot of the normal distribution described previously.
Prob(Pr <= 3.3) can be found by finding first point where vertical line from 3.3
intersects the curve and then by finding the corresponding point on the y-axis.
This corresponds to a value of 0.09. Hence Prob(Pr <= 3.3) = 0.09

0.5

0.090123
The
On Typical
the x Rayleigh
y axis
axis we distribution
in this graph
have plotted
plots thetheenvelop
elapsedgiven.
time in
if you
milliseconds
plot the histogram
for a car which
of the
is Various
values
travelling
here,atyou
deep about
will
fades and120
comekm/hr.
nulls up the distribution which is resembling the Rayleigh
distribution
It is measured at 900MHz. the scenario will change at a higher frequency.
These fades will become much more frequent if we go and do the measurement
at 2.4 GHz.

How many times per second do we

get into the fade?

For that we must define what is the acceptable signal strength

below which we say that the signal is not usable. So we need a
threshold and then we need to come up with a parameter
which tells me number of crossings per second.

If we have such distribution, then statistically if we can draw a horizontal

line and define a threshold, then we can calculate the number of
crossings per second. That will be the level crossing rate.
what the average duration of fade ?
For that we need to know again a threshold.
How much time do we stay below that line that will give
me the average duration of fade.
Clearly if we give the PDF- probability density function of
the Rayleigh distribution, then we can statistically calculate
the average duration of fade.
• The Rayleigh distribution is widely used in wireless communications.
This is due to several reasons:
• It is an excellent approximation in a large number of practical scenarios, as
confirmed by a multitude of measurements. However, it is noteworthy that
there are scenarios is not valid in Line Of Sight (LOS) scenarios, some indoor
scenarios, and in (ultra) wideband scenarios.
• It describes a worst case scenario in the sense that there is no dominant
signal component, and thus there is a large number of fading dips. Such a
worst case assumption is useful for the design of robust systems.
• It depends only on a single parameter , the mean received power – once this
parameter is known, the complete signal statistics are known.
• Mathematical convenience: computations of error probabilities and other
parameters can often be done in closed form when the field strength
distribution is Rayleigh.
• Example: For a signal with Rayleigh-distributed amplitude, what is the
probability that the received signal power is at least 20, 6, 3 dB below
the mean power. Compare the exact result and the result from the
approximate formulation.

Similarly, the exact results for 6 and 3 dB are 0.221 and 0.393, respectively.
• The approximate formulation of
Small-Scale Fading with a Dominant Component
• Fading statistics change when a dominant MPC – e.g., an LOS component or a
dominant specular component – is present.
• Continuing from the previous example with 8 NLOS component, by adding a
dominant component as follows:

It is clear that the probability of deep fades is much smaller

than in the Rayleigh-fading case.
Derivation of the Amplitude and Phase
Distribution
• The pdf of the amplitude can be computed in a way that is similar to our
derivation of the Rayleigh distribution.
• Assume that the LOS component has zero phase, so that it is purely real.
• The real part thus has a nonzero-mean Gaussian distribution, while the imaginary
part has a zero-mean Gaussian distribution.
• Performing the variable transformation we get the joint pdf of amplitude r and
phase ψ

where A is the amplitude of the dominant component.

• The pdf of the amplitude is given by the Rice distribution.

• I0(x) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind, zero order.
• The mean square value of a Rice-distributed random variable r is
given by:
 • The ratio of the power in the LOS
component to the power in the MPC
components, A2/(2σ2),is called the Rice
factor Kr.
• A represents the amplitude of dominant
component and σ is the strength of all
the other components.
• For Kr  0 or A  0, the Rice
distribution becomes a Rayleigh
distribution,
A2 A2
K  2  K  dB   10 log 2 • while for large Kr (A is much larger than
2σ 2σ σ2), it approximates a Gaussian
distribution with mean value A. it
becomes a no fading scenario.
Nakagami Distribution
• Another probability distribution for field strength that is in widespread use is the
Nakagami m-distribution.
• The pdf is given as:
• Nakagami and Rice distribution have a quite similar shape, and one can be used
to approximate the other.
• For m > 1them-factor can be computed from Kr
• The main difference between the two pdfs is that

• The Rice distribution gives the exact distribution of the amplitude of

a non-zero-mean complex Gaussian distribution – this implies the
presence of one dominant component, and a large number of non-
dominant components.
• The Nakagami distribution describes in an approximate way the
amplitude distribution of a vector process where the central limit
theorem is not necessarily valid
What do we do with this distribution?
What kind of information do we gather or infer from this distribution?
We want to know
how many times do we get below a certain threshold ?
what is the average duration, we stay below a threshold?
our answer lies in either the level crossing rate or the average duration of fade
scenarios.
How do we carry out this experiment?
We will take a lot of measurements. we will get into a moving vehicle with a receiver
and an envelope detector and we’ll find out how the signal strength is varying.
we’ll plot the histogram of the envelop. If we are in a Rayleigh/Ricean fading channel,
we will get something which resembles the Rayleigh/Ricean distribution.
Based on that we will find out the σ. Then we have the complete specification of the
PDF.
Once we have that then we will find out how many times we go below a threshold or
how many times we stay below the threshold.
 level crossing rate
Definition: the level crossing rate or LCR is defined as the expected rate at
which the Rayleigh fading envelop normalized to the local root mean
square signal level crosses a specified threshold level in the positive going
direction.
The number of level crossings per second is given by

 ρ2
N R  2π f m ρe
ρ:= R/rrms = specified envelope value normalized to rrms

fm: Maximum Doppler shift

R is that special threshold value and rrms is a characteristic of the Rayleigh
distribution.
 level crossing rate (example)
Scenario
Rayleigh fading environment
carrier frequency = 900MHz
maximum vehicular speed = 50km/hr
ρ =1 (i.e threshold = RMS level)
Find the level crossing rate
 ρ2
N R  2π f m ρe
λ = 3*108/(900*106) = 0.33m
fm = v/ λ = ((50*103)/3600)/0.33 = 41.67Hz
NR = 38.42 crossing / sec
Average fade duration
Definition: the average period of time for which the received
signal is below a specified level R.
this R can be specified by us and has to be a function of the
receiver sensitivity or the minimum quality of service.
For Rayleigh fading scenario, this is given by:
1
τ Pr  r  R 
NR
R
Pr  r  R    p  r  dr  1  exp   ρ 2 
0

exp  ρ 2   1
τ
2π f m ρ
there are two things
if you move fast.
This fm goes up.
But you must also remember that
Just staying below a threshold depends on how fast we are travelling but
very soon we might get back into the fade that must come from this NR.
That is the significance of NR. we couldn’t have calculated the average
duration of fade without the notion of the level crossing rate.
They are interrelated.
 Average fade duration (example)
Scenario
Rayleigh fading environment
carrier frequency = 900MHz
maximum vehicular speed = 50km/hr
ρ =1 (i.e threshold = RMS level)
Find the Average fade duration

λ = 3*108/(900*106)=0.33m
fm = v/ λ = ((50*103)/3600)/0.33=41.67Hz

  16 . 5 ms
 the propagation characteristics of the three outdoor
environments are observed
Propagation in macrocells
Propagation in microcells
Propagation in street microcells
 Macrocells
Base stations at high-points
Coverage of several kilometers
The average path loss in dB has normal distribution
Avg path loss is result of many forward scattering over a great many of
obstacles
Each contributing a random multiplicative factor
Converted to dB, this gives a sum of random variable
Sum is normally distributed because of central limit theorem
Free-Space Propagation Model
Free space power received by a receiver antenna separated from
a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d is given by Friis
free space equation:

Pr(d) = (PtGtGr2) / ((4)2d2L) (1)

Pt is transmitted power
Pr(d) is the received power
Gt is the transmitter antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
Gr is the receiver antenna gain (dimensionless quantity)
d is T-R separation distance in meters
L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >= 1)
oL = 1 indicates no loss in system hardware (for our purposes we will take L =
1, so we will igonore it in our calculations).
 is wavelength in meters.
Free-Space Propagation Model
The gain of an antenna G is related to its effective aperture Ae by:

G = 4Ae / 2 (2)
The effective aperture of Ae is related to the physical size of the
antenna,
 is related to the carrier frequency by:
 = c/f = 2c / c (3)
of is carrier frequency in Hertz
c is carrier frequency in radians per second.
oc is speed of light in meters/sec
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna that radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions. It is as the
reference antenna in wireless systems.
The Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
EIRP = PtGt (4)
It represents the max. radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of max. antenna gain.
In practice, antenna gains are given in the units of dBi which is the
gain with respect to the isotropic source.
 The path loss = signal attenuation between the
effective transmitted power and received power.
PL (dB) = 10log(Pt/Pr)
= -10log (GtGr2/(4)2d2) (5)
By excluding antenna gain,
PL (dB) = -10log (2/(4)2d2) (6)
The Friis free space model is valid only in the far field
also known as the “Fraunhofer region”
Before using the Friis free space model, we must
calculate what is the near-field region and what is the far
field region.
For far field distance df is defined as follows,
df = 2D2/ 
With the condition that df >> D and df << 
Where, D is the largest dimension of the antenna.
So only when you are beyond “df” , i.e. if your receiver is farther
away from “df” with respect to your transmitter antenna you can
start using these path loss equations.

Pr(d) = (PtGtGr2) / ((4)2d2L) (1)

As the eq. (1) doesn’t work for d=0. for this reason, large scale
propagation model use a close in distance d0, as a known received
power reference point.
Hence, the received power in free space at a distance greater than d0 is
given by,
Pr(d) = Pr(d0)(d0/d)2 d>=d0>=df

Pr(d)= is the received power at a distance d

Pr(d0)= is the received power at a distance d0
d0 = is a close-in distance that is used as a reference point for
received power
What will be the far field distance for a base antenna with,
Largest antenna dimension D = 0.5m
Freq. of operation f1 = 900MHz
Freq. of operation f2 = 1800MHz
For 900 MHz
m
df = 2D2/ m

Solution For 1800 MHz

m
df = 2D2/ m
Log Distance Path Loss or Log Normal Shadowing Model
Both theoretical and measurement
based propagation model indicate d
PL(d )dB PL(d 0 )  10n log( )  X
that average received signal power d0
decreases logarithmically with PL(d ) denotes the average large - scale path loss
distance. at a distance d (denoted in dB)
PL(d ) is usually computed assuming free space propagation model
0
The average large-scale path loss between transmitter and d (or by measurement).
0
for an arbitrary T-R separation is
expressed as a function of distance
by using a path loss exponent n:
The value of n depends on the
propagation environment: for free
space it is 2; when obstructions are
present it has a larger value.
Typical value for d0
Indoor:1m
Outdoor: 100m to 1 km
Path Loss Exponent for Different
Environments

Environment Path Loss Exponent, n

Free space 2

Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5

Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5

In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8

Obstructed in building 4 to 6

Obstructed in factories 2 to 3
 Ground Reflection Model
In LOS scenario, the reflection from ground is also important.
A two ray ground reflection model is often used.
This model is reasonably accurate for predicting large scale signal
strength over several kilometers i.e. outdoor channel model
The assumption is that the height of the transmitter is > 50m
This is true for our mobile applications
The total received energy at the receiver is the sum of the line of
sight path as well as the reflected path.
Here we get the a phase difference because of the path difference,
the addition is actually a vector sum which will result in a very
different kind of a ETOT.
Reference image
The idea is to first find out the path difference that will give us a
phase difference and time delay using these two parameters.
 Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model

E0 d0   d 
E d,t   cos  c  t    , d  d0
d   c  In optics, a condition
in which an incident
E d   d'  
E LOS  d ', t   0 0 cos  c  t    ray makes an angle of
almost 90° from the
d'   c  normal
E0 d0   d ''  
E g  d '', t    cos  c  t   
d ''   c 
Assuming grazing incidence Γ=-1 for normal incidence

E TOT  E LOS  E g
E0 d0   d'   Ed   d ''  
E TOT  d , t   cos  c  t      1 0 0 cos  c  t   
d'   c  d ''   c 
60
 According to law of reflection in dielectric
Reflection coefficient for ground

i   r E r   Ei E t   1    Ei
E0 d0   d'   Ed   d ''  
E TOT  d , t   cos  c  t      1 0 0 cos  c  t  
d'   c  d ''   c 

Using method of image,

  d ''  d '  (ht  hr ) 2  d 2  (ht  hr ) 2  d 2

For d>>>ht+hr
ht hr
  d d  2'' '

d
 2 
phase difference  

 
Time delay d  
c 2 f c
2
 ht h r 
Pr  Pt G t G r  2 
 d 

We are not using any other path loss exponent but this ground
reflection is making signal drop faster than natural even in free space.
It is important. This is very simplistic model, actually holds good in
most mobile application at the GSM frequencies. It’s a realistic model.
 Diffraction
This occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and
receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
irregularities or edges.
It explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural
environments without a clear line of sight.
diffraction can be explained by Huygens principle

ht
hr
 Huygen’s Principle & Diffraction

All points on a wave front can be

considered as point sources for the
production of secondary wavelets.
These wavelets combine to produce
a new wave front in the direction of
propagation.
Diffraction Gain
the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter is given by
1 1
=ℎ +
2
The diffraction gain is due to knife edge is given by,

=0 ≤ −1

= 20 log 0.5 − 0.62 −1≤ ≤0

= 20 log 0.5 −0.95 0≤ ≤1

= 20 log 0.4 − "0.1184 − 0.38 − 0.1 2% 1≤ ≤ 2.4

0.225
= 20 log & ' > 2.4
 Multiple Knife-Edge Diffraction

Tx Rx

ht hr

In the practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of
more than one obstruction.
Optimistic solution (by Bullington): The series of obstacles are replaced by a single
equivalent obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-edge
diffraction models.
67
Macrocells
In early days, the models were based on empirical studies
Okumura did comprehensive measurements in 1968 and
came up with a model.
He discovered that a good model for path loss was a simple power law
where the exponent n is a function of the frequency, antenna heights, etc.
The model was valid for :
frequencies in 100 MHz – 1920 MHz
for distances: 1km – 100km
 Okumura Model
L50(d)(dB) = LF(d)+ Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA
L50: 50th percentile (i.e., median) of path loss
LF(d): free space propagation pathloss.
Amu(f,d): median attenuation relative to free space
Can be obtained from Okumura’s emprical plots shown in the book (Rappaport), page 151.
G(hte): base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre): mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA: gain due to type of environment
G(hte) = 20log(hte/200) 1000m > hte > 30m
G(hre) = 10log(hre/3) hre <= 3m
G(hre) = 20log(hre/3) 10m > hre > 3m
ohte: transmitter antenna height
ohre: receiver antenna height
 Hata Model
Valid from 150MHz to 1500MHz
A standard formula
For urban areas the formula is:
L50(urban,d)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16logfc - 13.82loghte – a(hre) +(44.9 –
6.55loghte)logd
where
fc is the ferquency in MHz
hte is effective transmitter antenna height in meters (30-200m)
hre is effective receiver antenna height in meters (1-10m)
d is T-R separation in km
a(hre) is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a function of
coverage area
a(hre) = (1.1logfc – 0.7)hre – (1.56logfc – 0.8) dB for a small to medium sized city
Microcells
Propagation differs significantly
Milder propagation characteristics
Small multipath delay spread and shallow fading imply the feasibility of
higher data-rate transmission
Mostly used in crowded urban areas
If transmitter antenna is lower than the surrounding building than the
signals propagate along the streets: Street Microcells
Different models have been developed, to meet the needs of realizing
,the propagation behavior in different conditions.
Macrocells versus Microcells

Item Macrocell Microcell

Cell Radius 1 to 20km 0.1 to 1km

Tx Power 1 to 10W 0.1 to 1W

Fading Rayleigh Nakgami-Rice

RMS Delay Spread 0.1 to 10s 10 to 100ns

Max. Bit Rate 0.3 Mbps 1 Mbps

 Street Microcells
Most of the signal power propagates along the street.
The sigals may reach with LOS paths if the receiver is along the same street
with the transmitter
The signals may reach via indirect propagation mechanisms if the receiver
turns to another street.
D
Building Blocks

B C
A
Breakp
oint

received power (dB) received power (dB)

A A n=2 B
n=2 Breakpoint 15~20d
C B
n=4
n=4~8 D
log (distance) log
(distance)
Examples of city models

• Young Model
• Okumura Model
• Hata Model for Urban Areas
• Hata Model for Suburban Areas
• Hata Model for Open Areas
• COST Hata model
• Area to Area Lee Model
• Point to Point Lee Model
Examples of Outdoor Models
• Longley-Rice Model
• Durkin’s Model
• Okumura’s Model
• Hata Model
• PCS extension to Hata Model
• Walfisch and Bertoni
Indoor Channel Model
Indoor Propagation Models
The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional
mobile radio channel in the following aspects
Much smaller distances
Much greater variability of the environment for a much smaller
range

Propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by

specific features such as
Building layout
Construction materials
Building type
Open/Closed doors
Locations of antennas
the indoor propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms
as outdoors - reflection, scattering and diffraction.
However, conditions are much more variable because doors,
windows may be open or close.
Also the location of antenna matters
Indoor channels are classified as
LOS
Obstructed (OBS) with varying degrees of clutter
Indoor propagation gives temporal fading for fixed and
moving terminals
Many times the transmitter and receiver within the room
environment is fixed. However, the environment is changing.
There temporal changes in the environment because people are
moving, equipment shifting, windows are being opened or shut
Motion of people inside the building causes Rician/Ricean
fading for stationary receivers.
Portable receivers experience in general, Rayleigh fading if
there is obstruction.
Multipath delay spread
multipath delay spread changes from building to building
It depends on the size of the room, the number of
obstruction, the number of reflections
buildings with fewer metals and hard partitions typically have
small Root Mean Square delay spread :30 to 60 ns
If the delay spread increases, it will cause inter symbol
interference hence needs equalization
however in larger buildings with a larger amount of metal and
open passageway can have larger RMS delay spreads, even as
large as 300 ns
Indoor propagation
The lognormal shadowing model can also be applicable in indoor
environments
d
PL(dB) PL(d 0 )  10n log( )  X
d0

n and  depend on the type of the building

Smaller the value of  indicates better accuracy of the path loss
model
In building path loss factors
partitions within the same floor, partition losses between floors
and signal penetration into buildings

81
Partition Losses (Same Floor)

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport,
Prentice Hall, 2001

82
 Attenuation Factor Model
This was described by Seidel S.Y. It is an in-building
propagation model that includes
Effect of building type
Variations caused by obstacles
d
PL(d )  PL(d 0 )  10nSF log( )  FAF (dB)   PAF (dB)
d0
 nSF represents the path-loss exponent for the Same Floor measurements
 FAF represents the Floor Attenuation Factor
 PAF represents the Partition Attenuation Factor for a specific obstruction
encountered by a ray drawn between the transmitter and receiver

83
Partition Losses between Floors

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport,
Prentice Hall, 2001

84
Example of Reflection in Indoor Models
All Ray Paths for LoS, Single and Double Reflections between Tx1 and RX

Tx1

Rx Tx2

85
Summary of Signal penetration into buildings
RF signals can penetrate from outside transmitter to the
inside of buildings
The loss during penetration has been found to be a function
of
The frequency of the signal
The height of the building
The effect of frequency
The penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency.
The effect of height
the penetration loss decreases with the height of the building
up to a certain height.
At lower heights, the urban clutter induces greater attenuation
Shadowing effects of adjacent buildings
END OF THE CHAPTER