DataBases

1. Introduction to Databases
Definition:
A database is a structured collection of data stored electronically, allowing
efficient retrieval, insertion, updating, and management.

Explanation:
Databases store information systematically, making it easy to access, update, and
manage large amounts of data.

Uses:
Websites (e.g., storing user profiles, orders)
Banking (e.g., storing transactions)
Hospitals (e.g., patient records)
Example:
A university database stores student names, roll numbers, and marks.
2. Database Management System (DBMS)
Definition:
A DBMS (Database Management System) is software that allows users to create,
manage, and interact with databases.

Explanation:
A DBMS provides an interface for users to interact with databases, ensuring
security, consistency, and easy data retrieval.

Uses:
Stores and manages large datasets
Provides multi-user access
Ensures data security
Example:
Popular DBMS software:

MySQL
PostgreSQL
Microsoft SQL Server
3. Types of Databases
Definition & Explanation:
Different types of databases are designed for specific needs.

Relational Database (RDBMS) – Stores data in tables with relations.

Example: MySQL, PostgreSQL
NoSQL Database – Stores unstructured or semi-structured data.
Example: MongoDB, Firebase
Hierarchical Database – Data stored in a tree-like structure.
Example: IBM IMS
Network Database – Uses a graph structure with multiple relationships.
Example: CODASYL DBMS
Uses:
RDBMS is used in banking, enterprise apps.
NoSQL is used in big data applications, real-time analytics.
4. SQL (Structured Query Language)
Definition:
SQL is a language used to query and manipulate relational databases.

Explanation:
SQL allows users to perform CRUD operations:

Create (INSERT)
Read (SELECT)
Update (UPDATE)
Delete (DELETE)
Uses:
Used in backend development
Helps retrieve and modify data
Example:
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SELECT * FROM Students WHERE age > 18;
(Selects all students older than 18.)

5. Normalization
Definition:
Normalization is a process of organizing a database to reduce redundancy and
improve integrity.

Explanation:
It divides a large table into smaller ones and establishes relationships between
them.

Forms of Normalization:
1NF (Eliminates duplicate columns)
2NF (Eliminates partial dependencies)
3NF (Removes transitive dependencies)
Uses:
Prevents data duplication
Saves storage space
Example:
Before normalization:

Student Course Teacher

Ali Math John
Sara Math John
Ali Science Mike
After normalization:
Students Table

Student_ID Name
1 Ali
2 Sara
Courses Table

Course_ID Course
101 Math
102 Science
6. ACID Properties
Definition:
ACID properties ensure database transactions are reliable.

Explanation:
Atomicity – All or nothing execution of a transaction.
Consistency – Ensures valid state before and after a transaction.
Isolation – Transactions don't interfere with each other.
Durability – Changes remain even after a system crash.
Uses:
Ensures data integrity in banking and e-commerce.
Example:
A banking transaction transferring money from one account to another must be atomic
—either fully complete or not executed at all.

7. Indexing
Definition:
Indexing is a technique that improves the speed of data retrieval.

Explanation:
An index creates a quick lookup mechanism for finding records faster.

Uses:
Used in search engines
Improves database performance
Example:
An index on the "name" column in a Students table allows fast searches.

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CREATE INDEX idx_name ON Students(name);
8. Transactions
Definition:
A transaction is a sequence of operations that is treated as a single unit.

Explanation:
A transaction ensures that multiple operations are completed together.

Uses:
Used in online payments, shopping carts.
Example:
If a user buys an item and the payment is deducted but the order is not placed, a
rollback should occur.

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BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE Accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE user_id = 1;
UPDATE Orders SET status = 'Placed' WHERE order_id = 101;
COMMIT;
9. Triggers
Definition:
Triggers are special SQL procedures that execute automatically when certain
conditions are met.

Explanation:
Triggers help automate database tasks like logging changes.

Uses:
Used in auditing and security.
Example:
Automatically record when a new user is added.

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CREATE TRIGGER after_insert_user
AFTER INSERT ON Users
FOR EACH ROW
INSERT INTO AuditLog(user_id, action) VALUES (NEW.id, 'User Added');
10. Stored Procedures
Definition:
Stored procedures are precompiled SQL scripts stored in the database.

Explanation:
They improve security and efficiency by reducing repetitive query execution.

Uses:
Used in enterprise applications.
Example:
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CREATE PROCEDURE GetStudents()
AS
SELECT * FROM Students;
11. NoSQL Databases
Definition:
NoSQL databases store data in a non-relational format.

Explanation:
Unlike SQL databases, NoSQL databases store data in flexible formats like JSON,
key-value pairs, or graphs.

Uses:
Used in social media, real-time analytics.
Example:
MongoDB stores data in JSON format:

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{ "name": "Ali", "age": 22, "city": "Lahore" }
12. Data Warehousing
Definition:
A data warehouse is a system used for reporting and data analysis.

Explanation:
It collects and stores large datasets for business intelligence.

Uses:
Used in business analytics, reporting.
Example:
Amazon stores customer purchase history in a data warehouse for recommendations.

13. Data Mining

Definition:
Data mining is the process of discovering patterns in large datasets.

Explanation:
It helps businesses find trends using algorithms.

Uses:
Used in fraud detection, recommendations.
Example:
Netflix suggests movies based on user preferences.