MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable
being measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single unit that gives an
output reading or signal according to the magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it.
However, in more complex measurement situations, a measuring system consists of several
separate elements as shown in Figure 1.2. These components might be contained within one or
more boxes, and the boxes holding individual measurement elements might be either close
together or physically separate. The term measuring instrument is commonly used to describe
a measurement system, whether it contains only one or many elements,

The first element in any measuring system is the primary sensor: this gives an output that is a
function of the measurand (the input applied to it). For most but not all sensors, this function
is at least approximately linear. Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid-in-glass
thermometer, a thermocouple and a strain gauge. In the case of the mercury-in-glass
thermometer, the output reading is given in terms of the level of the mercury, and so this
particular primary sensor is also a complete measurement system in itself. However, in general,
the primary sensor is only part of a measurement system.
Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable of a primary transducer is
in an inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more convenient form. For instance, the
displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in the form of a varying resistance. The
resistance change cannot be easily measured and so it is converted to a change in voltage by a
bridge circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion element. In some cases, the
primary sensor and variable conversion element are combined, and the combination is known
as a transducer.
Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system
in some way. A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic amplifier,
which amplifies the output of the primary transducer or variable conversion element, thus
improving the sensitivity and resolution of measurement. This element of a measuring system
is particularly important where the primary transducer has a low output. For example,
thermocouples have a typical output of only a few millivolts. Other types of signal processing
element are those that filter out induced noise and remove mean levels etc. In some devices,
signal processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then known as a transmitter.
Signal transmission is needed when the observation or application point of the output of a
measurement system is some distance away from the site of the primary transducer. Sometimes,
this separation is made solely for purposes of convenience, but more often it follows from the
physical inaccessibility or environmental unsuitability of the site of the primary transducer for
mounting the signal.
The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where the measured signal is
utilized. In some cases, this element is omitted altogether because the measurement is used as
part of an automatic control scheme, and the transmitted signal is fed directly into the control
system. In other cases, this element in the measurement system takes the form either of a signal
presentation unit or of a signal-recording unit.
These take many forms according to the requirements of the particular measurement
application.
Therefore, instrument choice is a compromise between performance characteristics,
ruggedness and durability, maintenance requirements and purchase cost. To carry out such an
evaluation properly, the instrument engineer must have a wide knowledge of the range of
instruments available for measuring particular physical quantities, and he/she must also have a
deep understanding of how instrument characteristics are affected by particular measurement
situations and operating conditions.

ANALOG METERS/INSTRUMENTS
Analogue and digital instruments
An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured
changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument
is designed to measure. The deflection-type of pressure gauge shown in Figure 2.1 is a good
example of an analogue instrument.
As the input value changes, the pointer moves with a smooth continuous motion.
Whilst the pointer can therefore be in an infinite number of positions within its range of
movement, the number of different positions that the eye can discriminate between is strictly
limited, this discrimination being dependent upon how large the scale is and how finely it is
divided.

A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite
number of values. The rev counter sketched in Figure 2.4 is an example of a digital instrument.
A cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is being measured, and on each
revolution the cam opens and closes a switch. The switching operations are counted by an
electronic counter. This system can only count whole revolutions and cannot discriminate any
motion that is less than a full revolution.
The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has become particularly important
with the rapid growth in the application of microcomputers to automatic control systems. Any
digital computer system, of which the microcomputer is but one example, performs its
computations in digital form. An instrument whose output is in digital form is therefore
particularly advantageous in such applications, as it can be interfaced directly to the control
computer. Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an analogue-to-
digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analogue output signal from the instrument into
an equivalent digital quantity that can be read into the computer. This conversion has several
disadvantages. Firstly, the A/D converter adds a significant cost to the system. Secondly, a
finite time is involved in the process of converting an analogue signal to a digital quantity,
and this time can be critical in the control of fast processes where the accuracy of control
depends on the speed of the controlling computer. Degrading the speed of operation of the
control computer by imposing a requirement for A/D conversion thus impairs the accuracy by
which the process is controlled.
Measuring instruments are classified according to both the quantity measured by the
instrument and the principle of operation. Three general principles of operation are available:
(i) electromagnetic, which utilises the magnetic effects of electric currents; (ii) electrostatic,
which utilises the forces between electrically charged conductors; (iii) electro-thermal, which
utilises the heating effect.
For general measurements, secondary instruments are used and they may be classified as:
1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Integrating instruments
Indicating instruments are instruments which indicate the magnitude of a quantity being
measured. They generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose.
Recording instruments give a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a
specified period. The variation of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen
(attached to the moving system of the instrument; the moving system is operated by the
quantity being measured) on a sheet of paper that moves perpendicular to the movement of
the pen.
Integrating instruments record totalised events over a specified period of time. The
summation, which they give, is the product of time and an electrical quantity e.g., ampere
hour and watt hour (energy) meters.
These devices can also be classified according to their principle of operation. The majority of
them including moving coil, moving iron and electrodynamic utilise the magnetic effect.
Others utilise the effect of the heat produced by a current in a conductor such as
thermocouple and hotwire instruments while others utilise electrostatic effect such as in
electrostatic voltmeters. The electromagnetic induction effect is used in induction wattmeters
and induction energy meters.

Operating torques
For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, three torques are needed.
1. Deflecting torque
This is a mechanical force produced by the current or voltage which causes the pointer to
deflect from its zero position.
2. Controlling torque
This is the force that acts in opposition to the deflecting force and ensures that the deflection
shown on the meter is always the same for a given measured quantity. It also prevents the
pointer from always going to the maximum deflection.
The system which produces the controlling torque is called the controlling system and its
functions are:
• To produce a torque equal and opposite to the deflecting torque at the final steady
position of the pointer in order to make the deflection of the pointer definite for a
particular magnitude of current
• To bring the moving system back to its zero position when the force causing the
instrument moving system to deflect is removed.
There are two main types of controlling device – spring control and gravity control.
Spring control
A hair-spring, usually of phosphor-bronze attached to the moving system, is used in
indicating instruments for control purpose.
To give a controlling torque which is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of
the moving system, the number of turns on the spring should be fairly large, so that the
deflection per unit length is small. The stress in the spring must be limited to such a value
that there is no permanent set.
The controlling torque, Tc is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving
system i.e., Tc =ksθ where ks is the spring constant.
Gravity control
In a gravity-controlled instrument, a small weight is attached to the moving system in such
a way that it produces a restoring or controlling torque when the system is deflected. The
controlling torque, Tc = wl sin θ, when the deflection is θ, and w is the control weight and l
its distance from the axis of rotation of the moving system, and it is, therefore, proportional
only to the sine of the angle of deflection, instead of just θ, as with spring control. Gravity
controlled instruments must obviously be used in a vertical position in order that the
control may operate.
Gravity control has the following advantages when compared with spring control:
• It is cheaper
• Independent of temperature
• Does not deteriorate with time
NB: For equilibrium or a definite reading, the controlling torque, Tc should be equal to the
deflecting torque, Td
3. Damping torque
It is the force that ensures the pointer comes to rest in its final position quickly and without
undue oscillation. There are three main types of damping used – eddy current damping, air-
friction damping and fluid friction damping.
When the deflecting torque is much greater than the controlling torque, the system is
called underdamped. If the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, it is called
critically damped. When deflecting torque is much less than the controlling torque, the
system is under overdamped condition.
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT (PMMC)
The most common analog instrument or meter is the permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
instrument and it is used for measuring a dc current or voltage of an electric circuit. On the
other hand, the indications of alternating current ammeters and voltmeters must represent the
rms values of the current, or voltage, respectively, applied to the instrument.
The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument operates is
that a torque is exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent
magnet.

Internal construction of PMMC instruments

Deflecting Torque Equation of PMMC Instrument
Let, B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)
i = current in the coil (A)
l = effective axial length of the coil (m)
b = breadth of the coil (m)
n = number of turns of the coil.
Force on one side of the coil is

Torque on each side of the coil,

Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,

For a permanent magnet, B is constant. Also, for a given coil l, b and n are constants
and thus the product (Blnb) is also a constant, say k1.
Therefore,

Control torque
The control on the movement of the pointer over the scale is provided by two spirally wound,
phosphor-bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the spindle S. Sometimes these
springs also conduct the current into and out of the coil. The control torque of the springs is
proportional to the angle θ turned through by the coil.

At final steady state position, Control torque = Deflecting torque

So, angular deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current. Thus the
scale of the instrument is linear or uniformly divided.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments
1. Sensitive to small current
2. Very accurate and reliable
3. Uniform scale up to 270° or more
4. Very effective built in damping
5. Low power consumption, varies from 25 µW to 200 µW
6. Free from hysteresis and not effected by external fields because its permanent
magnet shields the coil from external magnetic fields
7. Easily adopted as a multirange instrument

Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments

1. This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In alternating current,
the instrument does not operate because in the positive half, the pointer experiences a
force in one direction and in the negative half the pointer experiences the force in the
opposite direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains its zero position.
2. The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by rough handling.
3. The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged overloading.
4. It is costlier.
5. The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and control spring) may introduce
some errors.

Extension of Range of PMMC Instruments

Ammeter Shunts
The moving-coil instrument has a coil wound with very fine wire. It can carry only few
mA safely to give full-scale deflection. For measuring higher current, a low resistance is
connected in parallel to the instrument to bypass the major part of the current. The low
resistance connected in parallel with the coil is called a shunt.

Extension of PMMC ammeter using shunt

The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.
Rsh = shunt resistance (Ω)
Rm = coil resistance (Ω)
Im = Ifs = full-scale deflection current (A)
Ish = shunt current (A)
I = current to be measured (A)
The voltage drop across the shunt and the meter must be same as they are connected in
parallel.

The ratio of the total current to the current in the meter is called multiplying power of
shunt. Multiplying power,

Voltmeter Multipliers
For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is connected in series with the instrument
to limit the current in the coil to a safe value. This value of current should never exceed
the current required to produce the full scale deflection(f.s.d.). The high resistance connected
in series with the instrument is called a multiplier.

Extension of PMMC voltmeter using multiplier

The value of multiplier required to extend the voltage range, is calculated as under:
Rsc = multiplier resistance (Ω)
Rm = meter resistance (Ω)
Im= Ifs = full scale deflection current (A)
v = voltage across the meter for producing current Im (A)
V = voltage to be measured (A)
V = ImRm
V = Im(Rm + Rsc)

Now multiplying factor for multiplier

The moving-coil instrument is a very sensitive instrument. It is, therefore, widely used for
measuring current and voltage.The coil of the instrument may require a small amount of
current (in the range of µA) for full-scale deflection (f.s.d). The sensitivity is sometimes
expressed in ohm/volt. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by

where Ifs is the full-scale deflecting current. Thus, the sensitivity depends upon on the
current to give full-scale deflection.

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

In these instruments the current to be measured, in general, is passed through a coil of wire.
In case of voltage measurement, the current which is proportional to the voltage is measured.
The number of turns of the coil depends upon the current to be passed through it. For
operation of the instrument, a certain number of ampere turns is required. These ampere turns
can be produced by the product of few turns and large current or reverse.
There are two types of moving iron instruments.
1. Attraction type moving iron instruments
When current flows in the solenoid, a pivoted soft iron disc is attracted towards the solenoid
and the movement causes a pointer to move across a scale.

2. Repulsion type moving iron instruments

In these instruments, two pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one being fixed, and
the other attached to the spindle carrying the pointer. When current passes through the
solenoid, the two pieces of iron are magnetized in the same direction and therefore repel each
other. The pointer thus moves across the scale. The force moving the pointer is, in each type,
proportional to I2 and because of this the direction of current does not matter. The moving-
iron instrument can be used on d.c. or a.c.; the scale, however, is non-linear.

MOVING-COIL RECTIFIER INSTRUMENT

A moving-coil instrument, which measures only d.c. may be used in conjunction with a
bridge rectifier circuit to provide an indication of alternating currents and voltages.
The average value of the full wave rectified current is 0.637 Im. However, a meter being
used to measure a.c. is usually calibrated in r.m.s. values. For sinusoidal quantities the
indication is 0.707Im/0.637Im i.e. 1.11 times the mean value.
Rectifier instruments have scales calibrated in r.m.s. quantities and it is assumed by the
manufacturer that the a.c. is sinusoidal.
Comparison of moving-coil, moving-iron and moving-coil rectifier instruments
Comparison Between Different Types of Instruments
 DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Merits and Demerits of Digital Instruments Over Analog Ones
1. Detection of Low Level Signals.
As indicated above analog instruments use PMMC movement for indication. This movement
cannot be constructed with a full scale sensitivity of less than 50 mA. Any measurement
using a PMMC movement must draw a current of 50 mA from the measured quantity for its
operation for full scale deflection if
conventional voltmeters are used. This would produce great loading effects especially in
electronic and communication circuits. Electronic voltmeter avoids the loading errors by
supplying the power required for measurement by using external circuits like amplifiers.
2. High Input Impedance
A conventional PMMC voltmeter is a rugged and an accurate instrument, but it suffers from
certain disadvantages. The principle problem is that it lacks both high sensitivity and high
input resistance. It has a sensitivity of 20 kW/V with a 0 – 0.5 V range and has an input
resistance of only 10 kW at its 0.5 V range with the result it has a full scale current of 50 mA
which loads the measurand considerably. In electronics and communication circuits even this
low value of current may not be tolerable on account of the fact that these circuits have very
low operating currents. The electronic voltmeter (EVM), on the other hand, can have input
resistances from 10 MW to 100 MW with the input resistance remaining constant over all
ranges instead of being different at different ranges, the EVM gives for less loading effects.
3. Low Power Consumption
Electronic voltmeters utilize the amplifying properties of vacuum tubes and transistors and
therefore the power required for operating the instrument can be supplied from an auxiliary
source. Thus, while the circuit whose voltage is being measured controls the sensing element
of the voltmeter, the power drawn from the circuit
under measurement is very small or even negligible. This can be interpreted as the voltmeter
circuit has very high input impedance. This feature of electronic voltmeter is indispensable
for voltage measurement in many high impedance circuits such as encountered in
communicating equipment.
4. High Frequency Range
The most important feature of electronic voltmeters is that their response can be made
practically independent of frequency within extremely wide limits.
Some electronic voltmeters permit the measurement of voltage from direct current to
frequency of the order of hundreds of MHz. the high frequency range may also be attributed
to low input capacitance of most electronics devices. The capacitance may be of the order of
a few pF.
5. Better Resolution
Resolution (smallest reading perceivable) of analog instruments is limited by space on the
scale markings and also by ability of the human operator to read such small deviations in
scale markings. Whereas in a digital instrument, the measured value is displayed directly on a
LED or LCD panel whose resolution is solely determined by resolution of the analog to
digital converter (ADC). Use of 12 bit (or higher) ADC can
make a digital instrument to read as small as 0.001 V in 0 – 5 V range.
 6. Storage Facility
Digital instruments have an additional optional advantage that their readings can be stored for
future reference. Since the value displayed is obtained through an ADC, the digital data can
be easily stored in a microprocessor or PC memory. Such storage facility can only be made
available in analog instruments by the use of chart
recorders where the pointer has a ink source that keeps on marking the values on a roll of
moving paper.
7. Accuracy
Since there are very few moving parts (or even no moving parts) in the digital instruments, in
general they are usually more accurate than the analog instruments. Even the human error
involved in reading these instruments is very less, which adds to the accuracy of digital
instruments. However, overall accuracy of a digital instrument will largely depend on
accuracies of the large number of individual electronic components
used for building the instrument.
8. More user friendly as they are easy to read
9. Takes up smaller space
10. Suitable for mass production
11. Sometimes less costly

Disadvantages of Digital Instruments

1. Effects on noise in more predominant on digital instruments than analog instruments.
Analog instruments, due to inertia of its moving parts, normally remain insensitive to
fast varying noise, while digital instruments continue to show erratic variations in
presence of noise.
2. Analog instruments have higher overload capacity than digital instruments. The
sensitive electronic components used in digital instruments are more prone to damage
in case of even momentary overloads.
3. Digital instruments can sometimes loose its reliability and tend to indicate erratic
values due to faulty electronic circuit components or damaged display.
4. Digital instruments and their internal electronic components are very much sensitive
to external atmospheric conditions. In case of high humidity and corrosive atmosphere
the internal parts may get damaged and indicate the faulty values.

Performance Characteristics of Digital Meters

1. Resolution
It is the reciprocal of the number of discrete steps in the Digital to Analog (D/A)
converter input. Resolution defines the smallest increment in voltage that can be
discerned. Evidently resolution depends on the number of bits, i.e., the smallest increment
in output voltage is determined by the Least Significant Bit (LSB). Percentage resolution
is [1/(2n – 1)] × 100, where N is the number of bits.
2. Accuracy
It is a measure of the difference between actual output and expected output. It is
expressed as a percentage of the maximum output voltage. If the maximum output voltage
(or fullscale deflection) is 5 volt and accuracy is ±0.1%, then the maximum error is
 (0.1/100) × 5 = 0.005 volt or 5 mV. Ideally the accuracy should be better than ±½ of LSB.
In a 8-bit converter, LSB is 1/255 or 0.39% of full scale. The accuracy should be better
than 0.2%.
3. Linear Error
Linearity means that equal increments in digital input of digital instruments should result
in equal increment in analog output voltage. If the values of resistances are very accurate
and the other components are also ideal, there would be perfectly linear relation between
output and input and output–input graph would be a straight line. Because of the fact that
resistances used in the circuit have some tolerance, a perfectly linear relation between
input and output is not obtained. A special case of linear error is offset error which is the
output voltage when digital input is 0000.
4. Monotonicity
A Digital to Analog (D/A) converter is monotonic if it does not take any reverse step
when it is sequenced over the entire range of input bits.
5. Settling Time
When the digital input signal changes, it is desirable that analog output signal should
immediately show the new output value. However, in actual practice, the D/A converter
takes some time to settle at the new position of the output voltage. Settling time is defined
as the time taken by the D/A converter to settle within ±½ LSB (least significant bit) of its
final value when a change in input digital signal occurs. The finite time taken to settle
down to new value is due to the transients and oscillations in the output voltage.

Settling time of a digital instrument

6. Temperature Sensitivity
The reference voltage supplied to the resistors of a D/A converter are all temperature
sensitive. Therefore, the analog output voltage depends, at least to some extent, on the
temperature. The temperature sensitivity of the offset voltage and the bias current of
OPAMP also affect the output voltage. The range of Temperature sensitivity for a D/A
converter is from about ±50 to ±1.5 ppm/°C.

Digital Multimeter
A digital multimeter is an electronic instrument which can measure very precisely the dc and
ac voltage, current (dc and ac), and resistance. All quantities other than dc voltage is first
converted into an equivalent dc voltage by some device and then measured with the help of
digital voltmeter.
The block diagram summarizes the multimeter measurement of the various quantities

Digital voltmeter
The Digital Voltmeter (DVM) displays measurement of ac or dc voltages as discrete numbers
instead of a pointer deflection on a continuous scale as in analog instruments. It is a versatile
and accurate instrument that is employed in many laboratory measurement applications.
Because of development and perfection of IC modules, their size, power consumptions and
cost of the digital voltmeters has been drastically reduced and, therefore, DVMs are widely
used for all measurement purposes.
The unknown signal is fed to the pulse generator which generates a pulse whose width is
directly proportional to the input unknown voltage.
It acts like an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) which converts an analog signal into a train
of pulses, the number of which is proportional to the input voltage.

Representation of DVM using blocks

The input range of the DVM may vary from ±1.00000 V to ±1000.00 V and its limiting
accuracy is as high as ±0.005 percent of the reading. Its resolution may be 1 part in 106,
giving 1 μV reading of the 1 V input range. It has high input resistance of the order of 10 MΩ
and input capacitance of the order of 40 pF.
Signal generators
A signal generator is numerously known as test signal generator, tone generator, arbitrary
waveform generator, frequency generator, digital pattern generator, function generator, etc. It
is an electronic device which produces repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (either
analog or in digital patterns). These signals are utilised in testing, designing, troubleshooting
and repairing electronic devices; apart from their artistic uses as well. Signal generators also
modulate sinusoidal output signal with other signals. This feature is the main distinguisher
between the signal generator and oscillator. When an unmodulated sinusoidal output is
generated by the signal generators then they are said to be producing CW (continuous height
wave) signal. When they produce modulated output signals then they can be in the form of
square waves, externally applied sine waves, pulses, triangular waves, or more complex
signals, as well as internally generated sine waves. Although Amplitude Modulation (AM) or
Frequency Modulation (FM) can be used, yet amplitude modulation is generally employed.

(a) Amplitude modulation (b) Frequency modulation

For providing appropriate signals for calibration and testing, signal generators are
mainly employed. They are also used for troubleshooting of the amplifier circuits used in
electronic and communications circuit amplifiers. Signal generators also measure the
features of antennas and transmission lines.