1.

Units and Measurements

Can you recall?

1. What is a unit?
2. Which units have you used in the laboratory for measuring
(i) length (ii) mass (iii) time (iv) temperature?
3. Which system of units have you used?
1.1 Introduction: 1.2.1 Fundamental Quantities and Units:
Physics is a quantitative science, where The physical quantities which do not
we measure various physical quantities depend on any other physical quantities for
during experiments. In our day to day life, we their measurements are known as fundamental
need to measure a number of quantities, e.g., quantities. There are seven fundamental
size of objects, volume of liquids, amount of quantities: length, mass, time, temperature,
matter, weight of vegetables or fruits, body electric current, luminous intensity and amount
temperature, length of cloth, etc. A measurement of substance.
always involves a comparison with a standard Fundamental units: The units used to measure
measuring unit which is internationally fundamental quantities are called fundamental
accepted. For example, for measuring the mass units. The fundamental quantities, their units
of a given fruit we need standard mass units and symbols are shown in the Table 1.1.
of 1 kg, 500 g, etc. These standards are called Table 1.1: Fundamental Quantities with
units. The measured quantity is expressed in their SI Units and Symbols
terms of a number followed by a corresponding
unit, e.g., the length of a wire is written as 5 m Fundamental quantity SI units Symbol
where m (metre) is the unit and 5 is the value of 1) Length metre m
the length in that unit. Different quantities are 2) Mass kilogram kg
measured in different units, e.g. length in metre 3) Time second s
(m), time in seconds (s), mass in kilogram (kg), 4) Temperature kelvin K
etc. The standard measure of any quantity is 5) Electric current ampere A
called the unit of that quantity. 6) Luminous Intensity candela cd
1.2 System of Units: 7) Amount of substance mole mol
In our earlier standards we have come 1.2.2 Derived Quantities and Units:
across various systems of units namely In physics, we come across a large number
(i) CGS: Centimetre Gram Second system of quantities like speed, momentum, resistance,
(ii) MKS: Metre Kilogram Second system conductivity, etc. which depend on some or all
(iii) FPS: Foot Pound Second system. of the seven fundamental quantities and can be
(iv) SI: System International expressed in terms of these quantities. These are
called derived quantities and their units, which
The first three systems namely CGS, MKS
can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
and FPS were used extensively till recently. In
units, are called derived units.
1971, the 14th International general conference
on weights and measures recommended the For example,
use of ‘International system' of units. This SI unit of velocity
international system of units is called the Unit of displacement m
SI units. As the SI units use decimal system,    m s 1
Unit of time s
conversion within the system is very simple and Unit of momentum = (Unit of mass)×(Unit of
convenient. velocity)

1
 = kg m/s = kg m s-1 Area of the disc of the moon
The above two units are derived units. =
(moon - earth distance) 2
Supplementary units : Besides, the seven  × (1.737×103 ) 2
fundamental or basic units, there are two more =
(3.84 ×105 ) 2
units called supplementary units: (i) Plane
angle dθ and (ii) Solid angle dΩ = 6.425  10-5 sr
(i) Plane angle (dθ) : This is the ratio of the Do you know ?
length of an arc of a circle to the radius of
The relation between radian and degree is
the circle as shown in Fig. 1.1 (a). Thus
π radians = πc = 180°
dθ = ds/r is the angle subtended by the arc
at the centre of the circle. It is measured
in radian (rad). An angle θ in radian is
denoted as θc.
(ii) Solid angle (dΩ) : This is the 3-dimensional
analogue of dθ and is defined as the area
of a portion of surface of a sphere to 1.2.3 Conventions for the use of SI Units:
the square of radius of the sphere. Thus (1) Unit of every physical quantity should be
dΩ = dA/r2 is the solid angle subtended by represented by its symbol.
area ds at O as shown in Fig. 1.1 (b). It (2) Full name of a unit always starts with
is measured in steradians (sr). A sphere of smaller letter even if the name is after a
radius r has surface area 4πr2. Thus, the person, e.g., 1 newton, 1 joule, etc. But
solid angle subtended by the entire sphere symbol for unit named after a person
at its centre is Ω = 4πr2/r2 = 4π sr. should be in capital letter, e.g., N after
A
scientist Newton, J after scientist Joule,
etc.
ds
(3) Symbols for units do not take plural form
dθ for example, force of 20 N and not 20
O r B
newtons or not 20 Ns.
Fig 1.1 (a): Plane angle dθ. (4) Symbols for units do not contain any full
stops at the end of recommended letter,
e.g., 25 kg and not 25 kg..
dA (5) The units of physical quantities in
numerator and denominator should be
written as one ratio for example the SI
r unit of acceleration is m/s2 or m s-2 but
not m/s/s.
(6) Use of combination of units and symbols
for units is avoided when physical
O quantity is expressed by combination of
Fig 1.1 (b): Solid angle dΩ. two. e.g., The unit J/kg K is correct while
joule/kg K is not correct.
Example 1.1: What is the solid angle subtended (7) A prefix symbol is used before the symbol
by the moon at any point of the Earth, given of the unit.
the diameter of the moon is 3474 km and its Thus prefix symbol and units symbol
distance from the Earth 3.84×108 m. constitute a new symbol for the unit which
Solution: Solid angle subtended by the moon can be raised to a positive or negative
at the Earth power of 10.

2
 1ms = 1 millisecond = 10-3s discussed earlier is length. To measure the
1µs = 1 microsecond = 10-6s length or distance the SI unit used is metre
1ns = 1 nanosecond = 10-9s (m). In 1960, a standard for the metre based
Use of double prefixes is avoided when on the wavelength of orange-red light emitted
single prefix is available by atoms of krypton was adopted. By 1983 a
10-6s =1µs and not 1mms. more precise measurement was developed.
10-9s = 1ns and not 1mµs It says that a metre is the length of the path
(8) Space or hyphen must be introduced travelled by light in vacuum during a time
while indicating multiplication of two interval of 1/299792458 second. This was
units e.g., m/s should be written as m s-1 possible as by that time the speed of light
or m-s-1 and Not as ms-1 (because ms will in vacuum could be measured precisely as
be read as millisecond). c = 299792458 m/s
1.3 Measurement of Length: Some typical distances/lengths are given in
One fundamental quantity which we have Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Some Useful Distances

Measurement Length in metre
Distance to Andromeda Galaxy (from Earth) 2×1022 m
Distance to nearest star (after Sun) Proxima Centuari (from Earth) 4×1016 m
Distance to Pluto (from Earth) 6×1012 m
Average Radius of Earth 6×106 m
Height of Mount Everest 9×103 m
Thickness of this paper 1×10-4 m
Length of a typical virus 1×10-8 m
Radius of hydrogen atom 5×10-11 m
Radius of proton 1×10-15 m

1.3.1 Measurements of Large Distance: P

Parallax method θ
Large distance, such as the distance of O
a planet or a star from the Earth, cannot be
measured directly with a metre scale, so a
parallax method is used for it.
Let us do a simple experiment to understand
what is parallax.
Hold your hand in front of you and look at E1 O E2
it with your left eye closed and then with your
Fig.1.2: Parallax method for determining
right eye closed. You will find that your hand
distance.
appears to move against the background. This
effect is called parallax. Parallax is defined as As the distances of planets from the Earth
the apparent change in position of an object due are very large, we can not use two eyes method
to a change in the position of the observer. By as discussed here. In order to make simultaneous
measuring the parallax angle (θ) and knowing observations of an astronomical object, we
the distance between the eyes E1E2 as shown in select two distant points on the Earth.
Fig. 1.2, we can determine the distance of the Consider two positions A and B on the
object from us, i.e., OP as E1E2/θ. surface of Earth, separated by a straight line at

3
distance b as shown in Fig. 1.3. Two observers Planet
at these two points observe a distant planet S d
simultaneously. We measure the angle ∠ASB
between the two directions along which the
planet is viewed at these two points. This angle,
D
represented by symbol θ, is the parallax angle.
As the planet is far away, i.e., the distance α
of the planet from the Earth is very large in
comparison to b, b/D << 1 and, therefore, θ is
very small.
We can thus consider AB as the arc of Earth
length b of the circle and D its radius.
AB = b and AS = BS = D and θ ≅ AB/ D, Fig. 1.4: Measurement of size of a planet
where θ is in radian 1.3.4 Measurement of Very Small Distances:
D=b/ θ When we intend to measure the size of
A the atoms and molecules, the conventional
apparatus like Vernier calliper or screw guage
will not be useful. Therefore, we use electron
microscope or tunnelling electron microscope
to measure the size of atoms.
B
Fig.1.3: Measurement of distances of planets Do you know ?
1.3.2 Measurement of Distance to Stars: For measuring large distances, astronomers
Sun is the star which is closest to the use the following units.
Earth. The next closest star is at a distance of 1 astronomical unit, (AU) = 1.496×1011m
4.29 light years. The parallax measured from 1 light year = 9.46×1015m
two most distance points on the Earth for stars 1 parsec (pc) = 3.08×1016m ≅ 3.26 light
will be too small to be measured and for this years
purpose we measure the parallax between two A light year is the distance travelled
farthest points (i.e. 2 AU apart, see box below) by light in one year. The astronomical unit
along the orbit of the Earth around the Sun (see (AU) is the mean distance between the centre
figure in example 1.2 below). of the Earth and the centre of the Sun.
1.3.3 Measurement of the Size of a Planet or A parsec (pc) is the distance from where
a Star: 1AU subtends an angle of 1 second of arc.
If d is the diameter of a planet, the angle
subtended by it at any single point on the Earth 1″
is called angular diameter of the planet. Let α
be the angle between the two directions when 1pc
r
two diametrically opposite points of the planet
are viewed through a telescope as shown in Fig. 1AU
1.4. As the distance D of the planet is large Sun
(assuming it has been already measured), we
can calculate the diameter of the planet as
d
 Example 1.2: A star is 5.5 light years away
D
 d =  D from the Earth. How much parallax in arcsec
--- (1.2)
will it subtend when viewed from two opposite

4
points along the orbit of the Earth? Solution: Angle subtended
θ = 1° 54' = 114' = 114×2.91×10-4 rad
= 3.317×10-2 rad
Diameter of the Earth = θ × distance to the
moon from the Earth
= 3.317×10-2×3.84×108 m
= 1.274×107m
1AU 1AU 1.4 Measurement of Mass:
Since 1889, a kilogram was the mass of a
shiny piece of platinum-iridium alloy kept in a
Solution: Two opposite points A and B along special glass case at the International Bureau
the orbit of the Earth are 2 AU apart. The of weights and measures. This definition of
angle subtended by AB at the position of the mass has been modified on 20th May 2019, the
star is = AB/distance of the star from the Earth reason being that the carefully kept platinum-
2AU 2  1.496  1011 m iridium piece is seen to pick up micro particles
=   5.75  106 rad
5.5 ly 5.5  9.46  10 m
15
of dirt and is also affected by the atmosphere
= 5.75  106  57.297  60  60 arcsec causing its mass to change. The new measure
= 1.186 arcsec of kilogram is defined in terms of magnitude
of electric current. We know that electric
current can be used to make an electromagnet.
Do you know ? An electromagnet attracts magnetic materials
Small distances are measured in units and is thus used in research and in industrial
of (i) fermi = 1F = 10-15 m in SI system. Thus, applications such as cranes to lift heavy
1F is one femtometre (fm) (ii) Angstrom = pieces of iron/steel. Thus the kilogram mass
1 A0 =10-10 m can be described in terms of the amount of
For measuring sizes using a microscope current which has to be passed through an
we need to select the wavelength of light electromagnet so that it can pull down one side
to be used in the microscope such that it of an extremely sensitive balance to balance the
is smaller than the size of the object to be other side which holds one standard kg mass.
measured. Thus visible light (wavelength While dealing with mass of atoms
from 4000 A0 to 7000 A0) can measure and molecules, kg is an inconvenient unit.
sizes upto about 4000 A0 . If we want to Therefore, their mass is measured in atomic
measure even smaller sizes we need to use mass unit. It will be easy to compare mass of
even smaller wavelength and so the use any atom in terms of mass of some standard
of electron microscope is necessary. As atom which has been decided internationally to
you will study in the XIIth standard, each be C12 atom. The (1/12)th mass of an unexcited
material particle corresponds to a wave. The atom of C12 is called atomic mass unit (amu).
approximate wavelength of the electrons in 1 amu = 1.660540210-27 kg with an
an electron microscope is about 0.6 A0 so uncertainty of 10 in the last two decimal places.
that one can measure atomic sizes ≈ 1 A0
1.5 Measurement of Time:
using this microscope.
The SI unit of time is the second (s). For
Example 1.3: The moon is at a distance of many years, duration of one mean Solar day
3.84×108 m from the Earth. If viewed from two was considered as reference. A mean Solar day
diametrically opposite points on the Earth, the is the average time interval from one noon to
angle subtended at the moon is 1° 54'. What is the next noon. Average duration of a day is
the diameter of the Earth? taken as 24 hours. One hour is of 60 minutes

5
and each minute is of 60 seconds. Thus a mean quantities. For convenience, the basic quantities
Solar day = 24 hours = 246060 = 86400 s. are represented by symbols as ‘L’ for length,
Accordingly a second was defined as 1/86400 ‘M’ for mass, ‘T’ for time, ‘K’ For temperature,
of a mean Solar day. ‘I’ for current, ‘C’ for luminous intensity and
It was later observed that the length of a ‘mol’ for amount of mass.
Solar day varies gradually due to the gradual The dimensions of a physical quantity
slowing down of the Earth’s rotation. Hence, are the powers to which the concerned
to get more standard and nonvarying (constant) fundamental units must be raised in order to
unit for measurement of time, a cesium atomic obtain the unit of the given physical quantity.
clock is used. It is based on periodic vibrations When we represent any derived quantity
produced in cesium atom. In cesium atomic with appropriate powers of symbols of the
clock, a second is taken as the time needed fundamental quantities, then such an expression
for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation is called dimensional formula. This dimensional
(wave) emitted during a transition between two formula is expressed by square bracket and no
hyperfine states of Cs133 atom. comma is written in between any of the symbols.
Illustration:
Do you know ?
(i) Dimensional formula of velocity
Why is only carbon used and not any displacment
other element for defining atomic mass unit? Velocity =
time
Carbon 12 (C12) is the most abundant isotope
of carbon and the most stable one. Around [L]
Dimensions of velocity   [L1M 0 T 1 ]
98% of the available carbon is C12 isotope. [T]
Earlier, oxygen and hydrogen were used ii) Dimensional formula of velocity gradient
as the standard atoms. But various isotopes velocity
velocity gradient =
of oxygen and hydrogen are present in higher distance
proportion and therefore it is more accurate
to use C12. Dimensions of velocity gradient
[LT 1 ]
1.6 Dimensions and Dimensional Analysis:   [L0 M 0 T 1 ]
[ L]
As mentioned earlier, a derived physical
iii) Dimensional formula for charge.
quantity can be expressed in terms of some
combination of seven basic or fundamental charge = current time
Dimensions of charge = [I] [T] = [L0M0T1I1]
Table 1.3: Some Common Physical Quantities their, SI Units and Dimensions
S. Physical Formula SI unit Dimensional
No quantity formula
1 Density ρ = M/V kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m )
3
[L M1T°]
-3

2 Acceleration a = ν/t metre per second square (m/s2) [L1M°T-2]

3 Momentum P = mν kilogram metre per second (kg m/s) [L1M1T-1]
4 Force F = ma kilogram metre per second square [L1M1T-2]
(kg m/s2) or newton (N)
5 Impulse J = F. t newton second (Ns) [L1M1T-1]
6 Work W = F.s joule (J) [L2M1T-2]
7 Kinetic Energy KE = 1/2 mν2 joule (J) [L2M1T-2]
8 Pressure P = F/A kilogram per metre second square [L-1M1T-2]
(kg/ms )
2

6
 Table 1.3 gives the dimensions of and
various physical quantities commonly used in -2b=1
mechanics. ∴b = -1/2
1.6.1 Uses of Dimensional Analysis: ∴a = -b = -(-1/2)
(i) To check the correctness of physical ∴ a = 1/2
equations: In any equation relating
different physical quantities, if the ∴ T = k l1/2 g -1/2
dimensions of all the terms on both the ∴T = k l / g
sides are the same then that equation is
The value of k is determined experimentally
said to be dimensionally correct. This is
and is found to be 2π
called the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions. Consider the first equation of T = 2 l / g
motion.
(iii) To find the conversion factor between
v = u + at the units of the same physical quantity
Dimension of L.H.S = [v] = [LT-1] in two different systems of units: Let us
[u] =[LT-1] use dimensional analysis to determine the
[at] = [LT-2] [T] = [LT-1] conversion factor between joule (SI unit
of work) and erg (CGS unit of work).
Dimension of R.H.S= [LT-1]+ [LT-1]
Let 1 J = x erg
[L.H.S] = [R.H.S]
Dimensional formula for work is [M1L2T-2]
As the dimensions of L.H.S and R.H.S
Substituting in the above equation, we can
are the same, the given equation is
write
dimensionally correct.
[M11L12 T1-2 ] = x [M 21L 2 2 T2 -2 ]
(ii) To establish the relationship between
related physical quantities: The period [M11L12 T1-2 ]
x=
T of oscillation of a simple pendulum [M 21L 2 2 T2 -2 ]
depends on length l and acceleration due 1 2 2
to gravity g. Let us derive the relation  M 1   L1   T1 
or, x       
between T, l, g :
 M 2   L 2   T2 
Suppose T ∝ la
where suffix 1 indicates SI units and 2
and T ∝ gb indicates CGS units.
... T ∝ lagb In SI units, L, M, T are expressed in m,
T = k lagb, kg and s and in CGS system L, M, T are

where k is constant of proportionality and represented in cm, g and s respectively.
it is a dimensionless quantity and a and b 1
 kg   m   s 
2 -2

are rational numbers. Equating dimensions  x     

 g   cm   s 
on both sides,
1 2
[M0L0T1] = k [L1]a [LT-2]b  g  cm  2
or x   103   (100)  (1)
= k [La+b T-2b]  g   cm 
[L0T1] = k [La+bT-2b]  x  (10 ) (10 )  10
3 4 7

Comparing the dimensions of the  1 joule = 107 erg

corresponding quantities on both the sides we
Example 1.4: A calorie is a unit of heat and it
get
equals 4.2 J, where 1 J = kg m2 s-2. A distant
a+b=0 civilisation employs a system of units in which
∴ a = -b the units of mass, length and time are α kg, β m

7
and γ s. Also J' is their unit of energy. What will 1
be the magnitude of calorie in their units? standard symbols, the equation S = at 2
2
Solution: Let us write the new units as A, B is dimensionally correct. However, the
1
and C for mass, length and time respectively. complete equation is S = ut + at 2
2
We are given 1.7 Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty in
1 A = α kg Measurement:
1B=βm Physics is a science based on observations
1C=γs and experiments. Observations of various
1 cal = 4.2 J = 4.2 kg m2 s-2 physical quantities are made during an
2
 A  B   C 
-2
experiment. For example, during the
= 4.2       atmospheric study we measure atmospheric
        pressure, wind velocity, humidity, etc. All the
4.2  2 measurements may be accurate, meaning that
= AB2 C-2
 2 the measured values are the same as the true
4.2  2 values. Accuracy is how close a measurement
= J  is to the actual value of that quantity. These
 2
measurements may be precise, meaning that
4.2 2
Thus in the new units, 1 calorie is = J multiple measurements give nearly identical
 2 values (i.e., reproducible results). In actual
1.6.2 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis: measurements, an observation may be both
1) The value of dimensionless constant can accurate and precise or neither accurate nor
be obtained with the help of experiments precise. The goal of the observer should be to
only. get accurate as well as precise measurements.
2) Dimensional analysis can not be used to Possible uncertainties in an observation
derive relations involving trigonometric, may arise due to following reasons:
exponential, and logarithmic functions as
1) Quality of instrument used.
these quantities are dimensionless.
3) This method is not useful if constant of 2) Skill of the person doing the experiment.
proportionality is not a dimensionless 3) The method used for measurement.
quantity.
4) External or internal factors affecting the
Illustration : Gravitational force between result of the experiment.
two point masses is directly proportional
to product of the two masses and inversely Can you tell?
proportional to square of the distance
between the two If ten students are asked to measure the
mm length of a piece of cloth up to a mm, using a
F  12 2
r metre scale, do you think their answers will
m1m 2
Let F  G 2
be identical? Give reasons.
r
The constant of proportionality 'G' is NOT 1.8 Errors in Measurements:
dimensionless. Thus earlier method will Faulty measurements of physical quantity
not work. can lead to errors. The errors are broadly divided
4) If the correct equation contains some more into the following two categories :
terms of the same dimension, it is not a) Systematic errors : Systematic errors are
possible to know about their presence using errors that are not determined by chance but
dimensional equation. For example, with are introduced by an inaccuracy (involving

8
either the observation or measurement process) which experiment is performed. For example,
inherent to the system. Sources of systematic the temperature may change during the course
error may be due to imperfect calibration of the of an experiment, pressure of any gas used in
instrument, and sometimes imperfect method of the experiment may change, or the voltage of
observation. the power supply may change randomly, etc.
Each of these errors tends to be in one 1.8.1 Estimation of error:
direction, either positive or negative. The Suppose the readings recorded repeatedly
sources of systematic errors are as follows: for a physical quantity during a measurement
(i) Instrumental error: This type of error are
arises due to defective calibration of an a1, a2, a3, ................an .
instrument, for example an incorrect Arithmetic mean amean is given by
zeroing of an instrument will lead to such
a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ................ + a n
kind of error ('zero' of a thermometer not a mean =
n
graduated at proper place, the pointer n
1
of weighting balance in the laboratory a mean = ∑ ai --- (1.3)
already indicating some value instead of n i=1
showing zero when no load is kept on it, This is the most probable value of the
an ammeter showing a current of 0.5 amp quantity. The magnitude of the difference
even when not connected in circuit, etc). between mean value and each individual value
(ii) Error due to imperfection in is called absolute error in the observations.
experimental technique: This is an error Thus for ‘a1’, the absolute error ∆a1 is
due to defective setting of an instrument. given by
For example the measured volume of a
a1 = | a mean  a1 |,
liquid in a graduated tube will be inaccurate
if the tube is not held vertical. for a 2 ,
(iii) Personal error: Such errors are a 2  | a mean  a 2 |
introduced due to fault of the observer. and so for a n it will be
Bias of the observer, carelessness in
a n  | a mean  a n |
taking observations etc. could result in
such errors. For example, while measuring The arithmetic mean of all the absolute
the length of an object with a ruler, it is errors is called mean absolute error in the
necessary to look at the ruler from directly measurement of the physical quantity.
above. If the observer looks at it from an
a1  a 2  ........  a n
angle, the measured length will be wrong a mean =
due to parallax. n
n
1
Systematic errors can be minimized by   a i --- (1.4)
using correct instrument, following proper n i=1
experimental procedure and removing The measured value of the physical
personal error. quantity a can then be represented by
b) Random errors: These are the errors which a = amean ± ∆amean which tells us that
are introduced even after following all the the actual value of ‘a’ could be between
procedures to minimize systematic errors. These amean - ∆amean and amean + ∆amean. The ratio of
type of errors may be positive or negative. These mean absolute error to its arithmetic mean
errors can not be eliminated completely but we value is called relative error.
can minimize them by repeated observations
and then taking their mean (average). Random --- (1.5)
errors occur due to variation in conditions in

9
 When relative error is represented as resistance.
percentage it is called percentage error. a) Errors in sum and in difference:
 a mean Suppose two physical quantities A
Percentage error = 100 --- (1.6)
a mean and B have measured values A ± ∆A and
B ± ∆B, respectively, where ∆A and ∆B are
Activity : their mean absolute errors. We wish to find the
absolute error ∆Z in their sum.
Perform an experiment using a Vernier
Z=A+B
callipers of least count 0.01cm to measure
the external diameter of a hollow cylinder. Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A)+(B ± ∆B)
Take 3 readings at different position on the = (A+B) ± ∆A ± ∆B
cylinder and find (i) the mean diameter (ii) the ± ∆Z = ± ∆A ± ∆B,
absolute mean error and (iii) the percentage For difference, i.e., if Z = A-B,
error in the measurement of diameter.
Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A)-(B ± ∆B)
Example 1.5: The radius of a sphere measured = (A-B) ± ∆A± ∆B
repeatedly yields values 5.63 m, 5.54 m, 5.44 ± ∆Z = ± ∆A± ∆B,
m, 5.40 m and 5.35 m. Determine the most There are four possible values for ∆Z,
probable value of radius and the mean absolute, namely (+ ∆A - ∆B), (+∆A+∆B), (-∆A-∆B),
relative and percentage errors. (-∆A+∆B). Hence maximum value of absolute
Solution: Most probable value of radius is its error is ∆Z = ∆A+∆B in both the cases.
arithmetic mean When two quantities are added or
5.63  5.54  5.44  5.40  5.35 subtracted, the absolute error in the final result
 m
5 is the sum of the absolute errors in the individual
 5.472 m quantities.
Mean absolute error b) Errors in product and in division:
 5.63  5.472  5.54  5.472  Suppose Z=AB and measured values of A
1  and B are (A ± ∆A) and (B ± ∆B) Then
  5.44  5.472  5.40  5.472  m Z ± ∆Z= (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B)
5 
  5 . 35  5. 47 2  = AB ± A∆B ± B∆A ± ∆A∆B
0.452 Dividing L.H.S by Z and R.H.S. by AB we
  0.0904 m get
5
0.0904  z   B A  A   B  
Relative=
error = 0.017 1  z   1  B  A   A   B  
5.472      
% error = 1.7%
Since ∆A/A and ∆B/B are very small we
1.8.2 Combination of errors: shall neglect their product. Hence maximum
When we do an experiment and measure relative error in Z is
various physical quantities associated with Z A B
the experiment, we must know how the errors   --- (1.7)
Z A B
from individual measurement combine to give
errors in the final result. For example, in the This formula also applies to the division of
measurement of the resistance of a conductor two quantities.
using Ohms law, there will be an error in the Thus, when two quantities are multiplied
measurement of potential difference and that of or divided, the maximum relative error in the
current. It is important to study how these errors result is the sum of relative errors in each
combine to give the error in the measurement of quantity.

10
c) Errors due to the power (index) of Squaring both sides
measured quantity: T 2 = 4 2 l / g
Suppose l
Z = A 3 = A.A.A  g = 4 2 2
T
Z A A A Now l = 0.1, l = 100 cm, T = 0.01s, T = 2 s
  
Z A A A g  100
Percentage error =
from the multiplication rule above. g
Hence the relative error in Z =A3 is three  l 2T 
   100
times the relative error in A. So if Z = An  l T 
Z A
n --- (1.8)  0.l 2  0.01 
   100
Z A
 l00 2 
A p Bq  (0.001  0.01)  100  1.1
In general, if Z =
Cr Percentage error in measurement of g is 1.1%
Z A B C
p q r --- (1.9) 1.9 Significant Figures:
Z A B C
In the previous sections, we have studied
The quantity in the formula which has various types of errors, their origins and the
large power is responsible for maximum error. ways to minimize them. Our accuracy is limited
Example 1.6: In an experiment to determine to the least count of the instrument used during
the volume of an object, mass and density are the measurement. Least count is the smallest
recorded as m = (5 ± 0.15) kg and ρ = (5 ± 0.2) measurement that can be made using the given
kg m-3 respectively. Calculate percentage error instrument. For example with the usual metre
in the measurement of volume. scale, one can measure 0.1 cm as the least value.
Solution : We know, Hence its least count is 0.1cm.
Mass Suppose we measure the length of a metal
Density =
Volume rod using a metre scale of least count 0.1cm.
Mass M The measurement is done three times and the
 Volume =  readings are 15.4, 15.4, and 15.5 cm. The most
Density 
probable length which is the arithmetic mean as
 m   per our earlier discussion is 15.43. Out of this
Percentage error in volume =     100
 m   we are certain about the digits 1 and 5 but are
 0.15 0.2  not certain about the last 2 digits because of the
=    100 least count limitation.
 5 5 
=  0.03  0.04   100 The number of digits in a measurement
about which we are certain, plus one additional
=  0.07   100  7% digit, the first one about which we are not certain
Example 1.7: The acceleration due to gravity is is known as significant figures or significant
determined by using a simple pendulum of length digits.
l = (100 ± 0.1) cm. If its time period is T = (2 ± Thus in above example, we have 3
0.01) s, find the maximum percentage error in significant digits 1, 5 and 4.
the measurement of g. The larger the number of significant figures
Solution: The time period of oscillation of a obtained in a measurement, the greater is the
simple pendulum is given by accuracy of the measurement. If one uses the
l instrument of smaller least count, the number of
T = 2π significant digits increases.
g

11
Rules for determining significant figures
Definitions of SI Units
1) All the nonzero digits are significant, Till May 20, 2019 the kilogram did not have
for example if the volume of an object is a definition; it was mass of the prototype
178.43 cm3, there are five significant digits cylinder kept under controlled conditions
which are 1,7,8,4 and 3. of temperature and pressure at the SI
2) All the zeros between two nonzero digits museum at Paris. A rigorous and meticulous
are significant, eg., m = 165.02 g has 5 experimentation has shown that the mass of
significant digits. the standard prototype for the kilogram has
3) If the number is less than 1, the zero/zeroes changed in the course of time. This shows
on the right of the decimal point and to the acute necessity for standardisation of
the left of the first nonzero digit are not units. The new definitions aim to improve
significant e.g. in 0.001405, the underlined the SI without changing the size of any
zeros are not significant. Thus the above units, thus ensuring continuity with existing
number has four significant digits. measurements. In November 2018, the
4) The zeros on the right hand side of the last 26th General Conference on Weights and
nonzero number are significant (but for Measures (CGPM) unanimously approved
this, the number must be written with a these changes, which the International
decimal point), e.g. 1.500 or 0.01500 have Committee for Weights and Measures
both 4 significant figures each. (CIPM) had proposed earlier that year. These
definitions came in force from 20 May 2019.
On the contrary, if a measurement yields
(i) As per new SI units, each of the seven
length L given as
fundamental units (metre, kilogram, etc.)
L = 125 m = 12500 cm = 125000 mm, it uses one of the following 7 constants
has only three significant digits. which are proposed to be having exact
To avoid the ambiguities in determining the values as given below:
number of significant figures, it is necessary to The Planck constant,
report every measurement in scientific notation h = 6.62607015 × 10−34 joule-second
(i.e., in powers of 10) i.e., by using the concept (J s or kg m2 s-1).
of order of magnitude. The elementary charge,
The magnitude of any physical quantity can e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb (C or
be expressed as A×10n where ‘A’ is a number A s).
such that 0.5 ≤ A<5 and ‘n’ is an integer called The Boltzmann constant,
the order of magnitude. k = 1.380649 × 10−23 joule per kelvin
(i) radius of Earth = 6400 km (J K−1 or kg m2 s-2 K-1).
The Avogadro constant (number),
= 0.64×107m
NA = 6.02214076 × 1023 reciprocal mole
The order of magnitude is 7 and the number (mol−1).
of significant figures are 2. The speed of light in vacuum,
(ii) Magnitude of the charge on electron e c = 299792458 metre per second (m s−1).
= 1.6×10-19 C The ground state hyperfine structure
Here the order of magnitude is -19 and the transition frequency of Caesium-133
number of significant digits are 2. atom,
ΔνCs = 9192631770 hertz (Hz or s-1).
Internet my friend The luminous efficacy of monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz, Kcd
1. videolectures.net/mit801f99_lewin_lec01/ = 683 lumen per watt (lm⋅W−1) = 683 cd
2. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ sr s3 kg-1 m-2, where sr is steradian; the SI
hframe.html
unit of solid angle.

12
(ii) Definitions of the units second and mole used). The arrows arriving at that unit
are based only upon their respective refer to the constant and the fundamental
constants, for example (a) the second unit (or units, wherever used) for defining
uses ground state hyperfine structure that unit. The arrows going away from a
transition frequency of Caesium-133 unit indicate other units which use this
atom to be exactly 9192631770 hertz. unit for their definition.
Thus, the second is defined as
9192631770 periods of that transition, For example, as described above, in fig (a)
(b) the mole uses Avogadro’s number i) the arrows directed to metre are from second
to be NA = 6.02214076 × 1023. Thus, one and c. The arrows going away from the metre
mole is that amount of substance which indicate that the metre is used in defining
contains exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 the kilogram the candela and the kelvin,
molecules. (ii) the newly defined unit kilogram uses
(iii) Definitions of all the other fundamental Planck constant, the metre and the second,
units use one constant each and at least while the kilogram itself is used in defining
one other fundamental unit, for example, the kelvin and the candela. This definition
the metre makes use of speed of light in relates the kilogram to the equivalent mass of
vacuum as a constant and second as the energy of a photon given its frequency,
fundamental unit. Thus, metre is defined via the Planck constant.
as the distance traveled by the light in Figure (a) refers to new definitions while
vacuum in exactly 1/299792458 second. the figure (b) refers to the corresponding
(iv) The figures show the dependency of definitions before 20 May 2019. Interested
various units upon their respective students may compare them to know which
constants and other units (wherever definitions are modified and how.

Fig (a) New SI Fig (b) Old SI

13