UNISA SURVEYING | STUDY GUIDE 1 OF 1 SRV121-QSURVEYING | STUDY GUIDE 1 OF 1 SRV121-Q COMPILED BY : J. BISSCHOFF MODERATED BY : C. DE WETUNISA COPYRIGHT DECLARATION In accordance with the Copyright Act 98 of 1978 no part of this material may be reproduced, published, redistributed, transmitted, screened or used in any form without prior written permission from UNISA Where materials have been used from other sources permission must be obtained directly for the original source SURVEY HANDBOOK: In accordance with the Copyright Act 1978, Act no 98 of 1978, we express our gratification for the use of extracts from the SURVEY HANDBOOK, for which copyright permission has been granted by The Institute of Topographical and Engineering Surveyors of South Africa and The City Engineer's Department; Durban Corporation, now Ethekwini Municipality. 7™ EDITION, 2006 FLORIDA SOUTH AFRICACONTENTS CHAPTER PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING MATHEMATICS UNITS OF MEASURE ERRORS AND MISTAKES LETTERING & DRAUGHTING THE DIFFERENT STEPS IN A SURVEY LEVELLING TRAVERSE SURVEYS SITE SURVEYING SEN ewP ens SRVI2TO * usa PAGE 4-18 19-35. 36 - 43, 44-50 51-58 59 - 66 67 - 175 176 - 259 260 - 282 INDEX EngineeringCHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING CONTENTS 44 12 13 14 15 16 47 18 19 1.10 114 112 1.43. 1.14. 41.15. Cr 7 UNISA ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS, ETC. SURVEYING PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING GRAVITY VERTICAL PLANE HORIZONTAL PLANE, MEAN SEA LEVEL (M.S.L) DATUM HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MEASUREMENT TOPOGRAPHY ‘TRUE NORTH (T.N.) GRID NORTH (G.N.) MERIDIAN CONVERGENCE AZIMUTH OR TRUE DIRECTION ANGLES DEFINITIONS & TERMINOLOGY USED IN SURVEYING PAGE ©araonononnvoe 10 10 " " " Chapter 1 EngineeringINTRODUCTION Surveying is the methodology employed to establish the fundamental topographical features of the earth's surface in such a way and format as to render the results to be representative of the actual surveyed terrain The information thus obtained, is then converted, analysed and manipulated to provide the essential data form which further designs may be realised In other words, we collect data about the earth's topography in a specific manner, making use of specific instruments and/or methods, and use specific formulae and applications tc transform and record this information into a usable format that can be used by other parties to effect their requirements The following pages outline fundamental aspects of surveying, mathematics, drawings and the representation of surveying data as may be encountered within any specific aspect of this surveying course To effectively complete this course, you must study this section thoroughly You must know at all times what you are supposed to do, why you must do it, how you must do it and when must you do what you have to do. This means understanding and knowing the terminology outlined in this section Exampl What does Datum mean, why do we require this Datum, how do we use this Datum in our calculation(s) and when and where do we use it? Throughout this course, you will require the terminology and formulae as outlined in these notes in order to be able to understand the surveying processes ‘The process of obtaining the field information, the instruments that you use in order to obtain this information and the post processing effected on this information all give you a specific result in a specific format that may or may not require further input from you or someone else ‘SRVI2-0 ~ Chapter 1 UNISA EngineeringThroughout this course, you will be introduced to new mathematical formulae and methods, but il is assumed thal you possess the basic mathematical and scientific skills gleaned from your secondary level tuition to solve the arithmetic components of the calculations LEARNING OUTCOMES ‘After completing this Chapter, you will be able to + Demonstrate your understanding of the basic definitions and terminology used in surveying + Demonstrate your understanding of these terms by working through the balance of the Study guide without having to refer back to this chapter * You will understand the importance of acquainting yourseff with the meaning of new words and principles and apply this skill by assimilating new concepts and ideas while working through the balance of this Study Guide In other words, you will be able to work through your study material and at all times be on the look out for new concepts, assi late these concepts and effect the necessary calculations or manipulations bearing the meaning of the definitions, principles and manipulations in mind! 1. ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS, ETC. 1.1 SURVEYING Surveying is the art of taking measurements upon the surface of the earth either in the horizontal or the vertical plane With few exceptions, the results are shown in the form of a map or plan, or as calculated figures In other words, Surveying can be defined as the art of making such field measurements and observations as are necessary to determine the positions, areas and volumes of natural and man-made features on the earth's surface SRVI21-0 3 Chapter 1 UNISA Engineeringand underground, and to represent these results on maps or plans, drawn to a known scale The converse operation to measuring is selting out, as when a road, railway or other planned engineering project is pegged out on the ground Thus, Surveying has the following two main objectives i To-construct maps, plans or profiles showing the relative po: and heights of existing features li To set out or establish the required positions and heights of new features in accordance with a pre-determined plan Following on from the above, we will see that there are two types of Surveying, viz Plane and Geodetic Surveying, discussed under the next item 41.2 PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING Plane Surveying - When the area to be surveyed is so small that the effect of the curvature of the earth may be neglected, except when dealing with elevations, such a survey is called a PLANE SURVEY Plane surveying is surveying where all measurements are made or reduced to either the horizontal plane or the vertical plane It is assumed that the mean surface of the earth within a small area (#16 km x 16 km) is a horizontal plane The earth’s curvature is therefore not taken into account The difference in distance between two points 55 km apart is only 0,3 km when measured along a chord and then on the earth's surface Plane surveying is used in enginee‘ing surveys, mine surveys, town surveys, etc Refer to the sketch below SRV 4 Chapter 1 uNISA EngineeringDifference between Plane & Geodetic Surveying on the earth’s curvature Geodetic Surveying - When the area to be surveyed is larger than 16 X 16 km, 0 that the shape of the earth (GEOID) has to be taken into consideration, the survey is called a GEODETIC SURVEY In this course we are only interested in plane surveying, in which all measurements are related to and portrayed as being on a plane, except when dealing with elevations A plane is a surface on which any straight line, joining two points only, touches the surface completely See points 14 & 15, below 1.3. GRAVITY This is the force that keeps the earth in equilibrium, keeps us on the earth, and gives us our sense of balance For our purposes, we assume that the force of, gravity is towards the centre of the earth, as indicated in the above sketch A. suspended plumbline wil, therefore, point towards the centre of the earth, and will be vertical at the place of suspension All vertical lines converge towards SRVIZ1-0 8 ‘Chapter 1 usa Engineeringthe centre of the earth Vertical lines at different places are, therefore, not parallel 1.4 VERTICAL PLANE A vertical plane is ore that contains the plumbline or itis a plane parallel to the direction of gravity A level surface is not a plane but a surface, which is at right angles to the direction of gravity, at every point on that surface 1.5 HORIZONTAL PLANE This is a plane lying at right angles to the plumbline, ie tangentially to the earth’s surface Horizontal planes at different places are, therefore, not parallel A horizontal plane is therefore a plane at right angles to the direction of gravity, at any one point on that plane ‘An inclined plane is a plane at any angle, other than 0° and 90°, to the horizontal plane 1.6 MEAN SEA LEVEL (M.S.L) This is the mean level of the sea on the surface of the earth At any one point it is horizontal, but its surface is not a plane A horizontal plane will be tangential tothe MSL ofthe earth at the point of contact only 1.7 DATUM The elevation (or level) of any point is expressed as the vertical distance of the point above or below a definite datum This datum is an imaginary level surface, whose constant elevation is assumed to be zero Reference is often SRvI2r@ é ~~ Chapter 1 UNISA Engineeringmade to a “datum plane”, but this is erroneous, as all points on a level surface are taken to be equidistant from the centre of the earth, and the datum must thus follow the curve of the earth Refer to /evel surface under point 1 4, above The Datum level is therefore the level from where all other levels can be calculated Sometimes, these points are also referred to as bench marks See page 20 of the textbook In the SA context, a bench mark is a steel peg fixed in concrete, whose X, Y & Z co-ordinates have been established, hence It can be used as the starting or reference point for any future surveying operation A benchmark is a fixed point of reference of known height relative to the national datum or some assumed local datum tis used as a starting (or closing) point for levelling runs Refer to the section on levelling. 1.8 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MEASUREMENT All measurements made in surveying are resolved into two planes — horizontal and vertical Surveying is carried out by the following four methods of measurement (a) Horizontal distances (b) Horizontal angles () Vertical distances (4) Vertical angles or Zenith distances Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles and zenith distances are made only in their own respective planes Distances are measured in any plane, but are always resolve fo the horizontal or vertical components, by means of the vertical angle and zenith distance measurements and Trigonometrical ratios Refer to the sketch below SRVIZI-O 7 ‘Chapter 1 unisa Engineering: zie B/S fhe ts (On nearly every type of map, distances between points on the earth's surface are plotted as horizontal distances DCFE isa horizontal plane 9 is a horizontal angle ABCD is a vertical plane isa vertical angle ABFE is an inclined plane DC is @ horizontal distance AD is a vertical distance AE is an inclined/stope distance 1.9 TOPOGRAPHY Topography is the name given to the representation on a map, of the natural and artificial features of the earth's surface, eg, hills and rivers, roads and houses, ete A TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP shows, “in plan’, all such features which may be drawn legibly at the particular scale selected for the map These map features may be subdivided into two main types, viz, Plarimetry and Relief (2) Planimetry - Planimetry is the representation, in plan, of the natural and artificial features, by means of conventional signs It gives no indication of differences of height A map giving no indication of varying levels is called a PLANIMETR(C or LINE map. SRVI2-G 8 Chapter 1 UNISA Engineering(b) Relief - Relief is the indication, in plan, of the variations jin elevation of the surface of the land The impression of relief may be conveyed in several ways, as follows () Colour layering - Each area lying between a defined maximum and minimum altitude, usually defined by contour lines, is shown in a distinctive colour This is a most useful method of aiding the eye to evaluate, at a glance, the significance of the contours. {tis simply an aid to map reading (i) Hachuring or Shading - Lines are drawn in the direction of the slope The steepness of gradients is represented by the density of the hachuring or shading, the steeper the gradient, the deeper the density Well executed, this is very effective but, at best, can only convey a rough indication of the more prominent features Contours - A contour is a continuous line drawn through all adjacent points of the same altitude, usually reckoned above MSL_ This is the most accurate and important method of indicating relief (iv) Form Lines - Approximate contours are sketched without reference to known heights Very useful for field sketches, but of the same limited value as hatchuring on finished maps 4.10 TRUE NORTH (T.N.) The true north at a point is the direction of the north pole from that point The m towards the poles Therefore, true north ‘SRVI27-O uNisa jan through any point is @ true north-south line Meridians converge ctions also converge towards the 3 Chapter 1 Engineeringpoles The TN at two points will only be parallel lines if they are on the equator or on the same meridian {t is apparent, therefore, that the TN line is not a good direction on which to base the directions used in a survey, because it is not a parallel direction from all points in the survey 1.11 GRID NORTH (G.N.) The central meridian of each system is a TN (TS) line, but all grid lines are made parallel to or at right angles to this line, and, for survey purposes, are oriented from the grid north (south) as it is called, ie, a line parallel to the central meridian The angle of direction or the direction of a line is aways referred to GS in South Africa Although these directions are fairly commonly referred to as "bearings" this is a misnomer, as true geographical bearings refer to T N Remember, we are in the Southem Hemisphere, so we work with Grid South, although we always indicate the North sign on the drawings or maps 1.12 MERIDIAN CONVERGENCE GN coincides with TN only at the central meridian of each zone, eg , as the 31° meridian passes through Durban, TN and GN coincide here The difference between GN and TN is called Meridian Convergence At the equator the meridian convergence will be zero and it will increase progressively further form the equator It also increases further form the central meridian ‘SRVIZ-O 10 Chapter 1 uNIsA EngineeringThe difference between GN and TN (GS and TS) is of opposite sign on either side of the central meridian By drawing a figure, the sign of this ‘meridian convergence can easily be determined A maximum value for ‘meridian convergence in South Africa is about 30 minutes of arc To summarise (@) Meri (b) tis zero at the central meridian n convergence = TN — GN (c)__ Itincreases to a maximum at the edges of the system (d)___Itincreases further away from the equator {e) __Itis of opposite signs on opposite sides of the central meridian 1.13. AZIMUTH OR TRUE DIRECTION Azimuth or true direction of a line at a point, is the angle measured in a horizontal plane, from the southerly direction, through the point, clockwise to the vertical plane, which contains the line 1.14, ANGLES ‘An Angle is the difference between two directions, from a point, and is obtained by subtracting the smaller from the larger direction, where the larger direction always lies clockwise from the smaller 4.15. DEFINITIONS & TERMINOLOGY USED IN SURVEYING The following 50 definitions, terms and terminology, as used in survey, are included to assist you in understanding what surveying is really about Some of these definitions were already explained in greater detail above, and some you will encounter while studying chapters 7-9 — study and know all these definitions - you get some of them in the examination ‘SRVIZTO Ti Chapter 1 uNIsA Engineering4 LEVELLING 2 TOPOGRAPHICAL ‘SURVEYING 3 ACONTOUR 4 ENGINEERING SURVEYING 5 CADASTRAL ‘SURVEYING 6 GEODETIC SURVEYING 7 THE CHARACTER OF AGOOD SURVEYOR 8 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS 9 RANDOM ERRORS 10 MISTAKES 14 CHECKS ‘SRVI2T-O uNisa The determination of the relative heights of different points on the surface of the earth When all the physical features (natural or manmade) on the surface of the earth, within the area where the survey is carried out, are surveyed and shown on a plan is a continuous line joining all points which have the same height above a specific reference plane From the planned project on the topographical plan, certain calculations are carried out to mark: roads, railway lines, bridges, dam walls, tunnels or multi-story buildings, physicelly on the ground All surveys carried out to fix the boundaries of private properties like farms, plots, erven etc, which are carried out by Land Surveyors because such properties have to be registered Applicable to surveys covering such a large area that the curvature of the earth cannot be ignored + He must have a thorough knowledge of his ‘work ‘+ He must be absolutely honest * He must be trustworthy * His judgement must be good, ete Errors which occur under the same conditions, always has the same magnitude and algebraic sign and is thus cumulative eg a tape which is too long or short The small errors which remain when systematic errors and mistakes have been eliminated Errors resulting from carelessness, lack of knowledge and where the surveyor does not concentrate fully on his work Any application of measuring or re-measuring, calculating or re-calculating of any data, thereby confirming independently that the work is errorless and without mistakes 2 ‘Chapter 1 Engineering12 CONTROL 13 CONVERSION 14 TAPE CORRECTIONS 15 PLOTTING ACCURACY 16 SCALE 17 ERRORS WITH TAPE MEASUREMENTS: 48 MISTAKES WITH TAPE MEASUREMENTS: 49 INTERSECTION 20 RESECTION SRVI2TO UNISA ‘Work from the known to the unknown ‘Work from the whole to the part Make your surveyed work fit in with the adjustment 1" (inch) = 0,0254m 1 (foot onons 3048 m Temperature Catenary or (Sag) Slope Sea Level ‘Scale Enlargement 0,00025m X scale nea 1 2 3 4 Natural scale=eg 1 5000 Convert 15,5 mm measured on a 1 200 plan to a distance on the ground (= 3 100m ‘on ground) Choice of scale If a scale is chosen which is foo small, no planning can be done from the plan The accuracy with which distances can be plotted on the plan, or scaled off the plan, is in direct relation to the scale of the plan Errors with alignment Errors caused by obstructions and the tame is not straight Slope measured incorrectly Error with temperature measurement Variations in PullTension & standardisation and wrong heights above sea level Peg misplaced Tape lengths counted wrongly Reading wrongly (6 for 9) \Writinglbooking wrongly (27 instead of 72) Know what fieldwork and calculations are necessary Know what fieldwork is necessary 3 Ghapter 1 Engineering21 AZIMUTH OR TRUE DIRECTION 22 $.A._CO-ORDINATE. ‘SYSTEM 23. PARALLAX 24 THE LEVEL PLANE 25 AREFERENCE PLANE 26 ABENCH MARK 27. THE SENSITIVITY OF ABUBBLE DEPENDS ON 28 SENSITIVITY 29 ABNEY LEVEL USES 30 OPTICAL SQUARE 31 COLLIMATION ERROR IN LEVELLING SRVIZI-O uNisa of a line at a point is the angle measured, from the southern direction of the meridian. through the point clockwise, in the horizontal plane, up to the vertical plane which contains the fine 1 Gauss Conform Projection = rectangular co- ordinate system 2 Twodegree (2") strips 3 SKETCH in your Study Guide 4 Central meridian always uneven number, known as Lo,eg Lo27° 5 Fifteen (15) minutes overtap between strips {tis the condition when the image which is formed, through the objective, is not formed on the same plane as the cross-hairs is one wherein all points are normal with the direction of gravity, as shown by a plumb-line It is nota flat plane any level plane to which heights of points can be referred Usually mean sea-level is used isa reference mark of which the height is known 1 The curve of the inside surface — the greater the radius the more sensitive 2 tis also greater if the diameter of the tube is, enlarged 3 The length of the bubble tube 4 The viscosity of the fluid 5 The smoothness of the inside surface is expressed in terms of the angle that the tube must be tied so that the tube moves one division 1 Slope of pipe lines 2 Slope of roots 3 Height determination Setting out right angles Determination of error 4 Chapter + Engineering32 BACK SIGHT (BS) 33 FORE SIGHT (FS) 34 INTERMEDIATE SIGHT (IS) 35 FORMULA FOR CHECKING IS 36 COMPARISON : RISE & FALL VS. COLLIMATION HEIGHT METHODS 37 REASONS FOR ERRORS & MISTAKES IN LEVELLING 38 INDEX ERRORIN LEVELLING 39 SIGHT DISTANCES The distance from staff to instrument varies, ‘and depends on SRVI2T-O, UNISA First reading after setting up the instrument Last reading before moving the instrument Allother sights in-between ZRH. (except 1") ZHI x number of IS & FS] — [ls + EFS 1 Ht of Inst Method has less calculations and is faster 2 It is calculated easier in the field, and is handy to set-out heights of pegs, eg for construction work 3. An error in an intermediate sight can slip in easily 4 The rise and fall method is checked fully, that is why itis used for important work 1 Instrument errors 2 Curvature errors where BS is not equal to FS 3. Refraction errors where BS is not equal to FS 4 Errors in handling 5 Errors when instrument of staff moves 6 Reading errors 7 Booking wrongly 8 Wind and sun’ For the final FS use the same staff as the one you used for the first BS to prevent index errors of the staves 1 The type of area — the steeper the ground the shorter the sight 2 The instrument — strong telescope, cross- hairs fine and the bubble sensitive, promotes longer sights 3 Accuracy required - for accurate work, relatively shorter sight distances required eg 30-45m 4 Theweather 5 Staff divisions —a clearly and well graduated staff can be read over longer distances A good observation distance is 30 — 45m 8 ‘Chapter 1 Engineeringa“ 42 45 REASONS FOR EQUAL BS & FS USES OF A LEVEL IN ENGINEERING SURVEYS SETTING-OUT OF A LINE ATA, REQUIRED SLOPE AREAS: VOLUMES TRAVERSE — SOURCES OF ERROR ‘SRVI21-0 usa egt Cancels the effect of curvature and refraction lt eliminates instrument errors, eg Colimation error Determine height differences between points Determine heights of points for drawing Longitudinal sections Determine heights of points for drawing Cross-sections: Determine spot-heights for contour plans. Setting-out contours in the field Setting-out slopesigradients in the field 100 Simpson's’ Rule Trapezoidal Rule End Areas Rule Prizmoidal Rule Instrument errors, Handling errors i) Faulty centring of instrument il) Faulty or careless levelling of instrument Slip iv) Not clamping the instrument firmly on tripod v) _Not clamping the horizontal clamp Observation errors from errors and mistakes when sighting or reading the instrument i) Careful sighting of the signal ii) Signal not upright ill) Reading errors iv) Enrors from moving pegs or signals v) Errors from incorrect field book entries Errors from natural causes i) Strong wind i) High temperature Poor visibility 76 Chapter 1 Engineering46 SEARCHINGFOR 1 _ Direction error ERRORS IN 2 Distance error TRAVERSING 47 PROS ANDCONSOF 1 Triangulation stations are usually fixed on TRAVERSES ridges while traverses are done on the plains where fixed points have greater use 2 Reconnaissance for triangulation is more expensive than traversing 3 Traverses can be done during a greater variety of | weather conditions than tlangulation 4 Abig problem with traversing is that errors in observations and calculations occur more ‘frequently than in triangulation, and is more difficut to trace 5 Errors which cancel each other, occurs more frequentty in traverses. 6 When results of high quality are required, Triangulation is preferred above Traversing 48 SETTING UP OF A . Centring ‘THEODOLITE/TACHE Levelling Orientation 49 PROCEDURE FOR Read and book Hi OBSERVING SPOT- Draw a neat sketch of the area to be HEIGHTS surveyed, and indicate where spot heights THEODOLITE/TACHE are taken, on the sketch Place MH approximately on HI Clamp the horizontal and vertical clamps With the vertical stow motion screw, place bottom hair onto a whole number Read stadia distance directly and book distance Place MH onto HI and book MH reading ‘Show staff holder to move to next position Read and book direction Read and book vertical circle reading Book spot-height description mae we SRVIDI-O 7 Chapter 1 unisa Engineering50 CHOICE OF SPOT- (RULES) HEIGHTS A physical features (man made features) All natural features (trees, rock outcrops etc) All clear changes of slope ‘According to Scale (0,03m apart on plan) According to Plotting accuracy (0,00025m X scale) anon ‘SRVI21-0 8 ‘Chapter 1 UNISA Engineering