Notes

Class XI Computer Science

Evolution of Computer

Imagine you had a job where hour after hour, day after day you would to
do nothing but compute multiplications. Boredoms would quickly set in, leading
to carelessness, leading to mistakes.
Let us here look on all the calculating and computing devices. As the name
suggests computer is a device made for computation includes arithmetical
calculations as well as the logical operation, therefore for hundreds of years
inventors have been searching for ways to make a nice manual task. Let us see
the major milestones in the evolution of today's computer.
Early computing machine Abacus: The Abacus, which emerged about 5,000
years ago in Asia, can be considered as the first computer. It was an early aid for
mathematical computations. It is made up of wooden frame with several rows
having beads. The frame was divided into two parts called Earth and heaven.
Each rod in heaven had two beads and Earth had five beads. This device allows
users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a Rack
and aids the memory of the person performing the calculation.
Early Merchant used the Abacus to keep trading transactions but as the use of
paper and pencil spread particularly in Europe,
Europe the
he Abacus lost its importance
importance.
The
he Abacus is still in use today,
today principally in the Far East. A skilled Abacus
operator can work on addition and subtraction
subtraction problems at the speed of a person
equipped with the hand calculator.
calculator However
owever multiplication and division was
slower.

Napier's bones: In 1617

17 an eccentric Scotsman named John Napier invented
logarithms technology that allows multiplication
mult to be performed via ad
addition.

The magic ingredient

ent is the logarithm of each operand which was originally
obtained from a printed table but Napier also invented and alternative to tables
tables,
where
ere the logarithm values were carved on Ivory a stick, which was named
Napier’s bones.
Pascaline: Pascal’s adding machine in 1642.
1642 Blaise Pascal the 18 years old son of
a French tax collector invented a numerical wheel
w l calculator to help his father
with his duties. This brass rectangular
rec box also called a Pascaline
line used 8 movable
dials to add up to 8 digits. Pascal’s device used a base of 10.
 For example: As one dial moved ten notches or one complete round, It
moved the next dial which represented the tens column one place, when the tens
dial moved one round and the dial representing the hundreds place move to one
notch and so on.
It’s drawback was, it’s limitation to addition and subtraction only.

Leibniz calculator: In 1694 a German Mathematician and Philosopher Gottfried

Wilhelm (von) Leibniz improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that could
also multiply like its predecessor, Leibniz’s mechanical multiplier works by a
system of gears and dials.

Jacquard loom: In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a power
loom that could base it’s weave upon a pattern automatically, read from punched
wooden cards held together in a long row by rope. In the Jacquard Loom, the
presence or absence of each hole in the card physically allows a coloured thread
to pass a stop that thread.

Difference Engine by Charles Babbage the real beginnings of computers, as we

know them today. An English Mathematics professor Charles Babbage is known
as the father of the computer. Babbage noticed a natural harmony between
machines and mathematics, machines with best performing task repeatedly
without mistake while mathematics particularly the production of mathematics
tables often required the simple repetition of steps.
In 1822 Babbage proposed a stream driven calculating machine, the size of a
room to perform differential equation called a ‘Difference Engine’. This machine
would be able to compute tables of numbers such as logarithm table and would
have a stored program and could perform calculations and print the results are
automatically.
Analytical engine: After working on the Difference Engine for 10 years Babbage
was suddenly inspired to begin work on the first general purpose computer,
which he called the ‘Analytical Engine’.

This device was as large as a house and powered by 6 stream engines would be
more general purpose in nature because it would be Programmable. Thanks to
the ‘Punch card’ technology of Jacquard. But it was Babbage who made an
important intellectual leaf regarding the punch card. Babbage saw the pattern of
holes could be used to represent an abstract Idea such as a problem statement or
the raw data required, for that problem solution for the more, Babbage realized
that punched paper could be employed as a storage mechanism holding
computed numbers for future reference because of the connection to the
Jacquard Loom. Babbage called the two main parts of Analytical Engine, the
Store and the Mill as both terms are used in the weaving industry. The Store
was where numbers were held and the Mill was where they were woven into
new results. In a modern computer the same parts are called the Memory Unit
and the Central Processing Unit.

Lady Augusta Ada, the first programmer, Babbage befriended Augusta Ada
Byron, the daughter of the famous poet Lord Byron, who was fascinated by
Babbage’s ideas. She learnt enough about the design of the Analytical Engine to
begin fashioning programs for the still un-built machine while Babbage refused
to published his knowledge for another 30 years and Ada wrote a series of notes
where ensued details sequences of instructions. She had prepared for the
Analytical Engine.

The Analytical Engine remained un-build, because the British Government

refused to get involved with this. But Ada earned spot in History as the first
Computer Programmer. Ada invented the subroutine and was the first to
recognize the importance of looping. In the 1980, is the US defense department
named a programming language ADA, in her honour.
Tabulating Machine: Herman Hollerith in 1889 an American inventor Herman
Hollerith also applied the Jacquard Loom concept to computing. His first task was
to find a faster way to compute the US census. Hollerith used cards to store data,
and information, which he is fed into a machine that compiles the results
mechanically. Each punched on a card represented one number and the
combination of two punches presented one letter, as many as 80 variables could
be stored on a single card. Census takers compiled their results in just six weeks
with Hollerith machine instead of 10 years. In addition to their speed the punch
card served as a storage method for data and they helped reduce the
computational errors.

Hollerith brought his punched card reader into the business world founding
tabulating machine company in 1896, later to become International Business
Machines (IBM) in 1924. After a series of mergers in the ensuing years several
engineers made other significant advances.

EDVAC-John Von Neumann. In the mid 1948 John Von Neumann joined the
University of Pennsylvania team initiating concepts in computer Design that
remained Central to computer engineering for the next 40 years. Von Neumann
designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer or EDVAC in 1945
with the memory to hold both a stored program as well as data.

Mark 1- Howard H Aiken, a Harvard engineer working with IBM succeeded in

producing and all electronic calculator by 1944, it was about half as long as a
football field and contain about 500 miles of wearing.

The Harvard IBM automatic sequence control computer or MARK 1 for short
electronic relay computer the machine was slow and inflexible. but it could
perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equation.

ENIAC: Another computer development was the Electronic Numerical Integrator

and Computer or ENIAC. This was the first general purpose electronic digital
computer invented by John Mauchly and J Presper Eckert in 1946. This is the
story of the evolution of computers after going through a long journey of the
evolution process the first electronic computer was invented the development
journey continues.

UNIVAC in 1951 J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly developed a Universal

Automatic Computer or UNIVAC. It is the first commercial electronic computer,
that could handle text and numeric data.

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The Five Generations of Computers
 Generations of Computer
• The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple calculating
machine to a smaller but much more powerful machine.

• The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in

terms of the generations of computer.

• Each generation of computer is designed based on a new

technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient
than their predecessors.
 Generations of Computer
• Currently, there are five generations of computer. In the
following subsections, we will discuss the generations of
computer in terms of the technology used by them
(hardware and software), computing characteristics (speed, i.e.,
number of instructions executed per second), physical
appearance, and their applications.
 First Generation Computers
(1940-1956)
• The first computers used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
• They were often enormous and taking up entire room.
• First generation computers relied on machine language.
• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat,
which was often the cause of malfunctions.
• The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of
first-generation computing devices.
 First Generation Computers
Advantages :
• It was only electronic device
• First device to hold memory

Disadvantages :
• Too bulky i.e large in size
• Vacuum tubes burn frequently
• They were producing heat
• Maintenance problems
 Second Generation Computers
(1956-1963)
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the
second generation of computers.
• Second-generation computers moved from
cryptic binary machine language to symbolic.
• High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL
and FORTRAN.
• These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory.
 Second Generation Computers
Advantages :
• Size reduced considerably
• The very fast
• Very much reliable

Disadvantages :
• They over heated quickly
• Maintenance problems
 Third Generation Computers
(1964-1971)
• The development of the integrated circuit was the
hallmark of the third generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on siliconchips,
called semiconductors.
• Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted
with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system.
• Allowed the device to run many different applications at
one time.
 Third generation computers
Advantages :

• ICs are very small in size

• Improved performance
• Production cost cheap

Disadvantages :

• ICs are sophisticated

 Fourth Generation Computers
(1971-present)
• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of
computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built
onto a single silicon chip.
• The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer.
• From the central processing unit and memory to
input/output controls—on a single chip.
• . Fourth generation computers also saw the development
of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fourth Generation Computers
 Fifth Generation Computers
(present and beyond)
• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence.
• Are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as voice recognition.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is
helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop
devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.
Fifth Generation Computers
The Application of Computer in Business

1. Business Communication

The computer plays a vital role in business communication. In the olden days, communication of
your business was done by sending letters. But nowadays we can communicate our business
from one location.

At present time there are many mediums through which we can manage our business. Email.
chat, video conferencing, advertising, and website through which we can easily do business
communication. Computer contributes to all the business growth happening today.

2. Inventory Management

Inventory Management is the key to any company which is successfully managed from a
computer. Before the computer, any inventory was noted on a paper, which was a difficult task
for humans.

With help of a computer, you can easily manage inventory like how many articles are in, out,
and how many presents are in stock. If your inventory is accurate that can increase the
production speed of your busThere are many software available for inventory management
which you can purchase and install and easily manage your Inventory Management. SAP and
Microsoft Navision ERP are some examples of inventory management software.

3. Customer Relationship Management

CRM is one of the Applications of Computers in business via you can easily manage your
customer information. CRM plays a vital role for any large organization. In a real environment,
CRM is a huge contribution to any

If you have ordered a product online, whenever you call the call center, the agent will give all the
information within a minute. This is the result of CRM (Customer Relationship Management)
through which you are able to take information in minutes.

4. Employee Management System

As a result of computerization, a large number of employees in any business are easily

managed. Many more software is available for payroll management systems via which you can
easily manage employee information.

With the help of employee management software, you can get the information of an employee
like the date of joining, name and address of the employee, salary details, attendance details,
pending leave, etc.
5. Easy for Employee Hiring

Everyone wants to have an experienced and well-qualified employee, with help of a computer,
you can do online employee hiring and get an offer from them. The employee also can apply for
a job with the help of a computer from any location.

Nowadays many more platforms are available via which you can easily post a job and hire
qualified employees. If you want to hire an employee then can post a job on shine, monster, or
Naukri which will get many candidates for the same profile.

6. Sales Analysis

Sales play an important role in business and also decide the growth of the company. With the
help of a computer, you can do your sales analysis. You can calculate how much sales
happened in this financial, how much is an expense and how far are behind and ahead of last
financial year.

Many more software you can install on the computer and generate the sales analysis of your
business. Some of the popular software are the following- Microsft Office, Looker, Groove,
Sharpspiring active campaign, etc.

7. Production Planning

With the help of the application of computers in business can also production planning. You can
decide how long your order was pending and how much stock have available, If you have a
shortage of stock then it can manage it accordingly.

8. Media and Advertisment

Media and advertisement have an important role in any business. Computer plays an important
role in media and advertising, through you promote your business. whether they are noticed on
boards and online advertising, every advert via any media is fully done with a computer.

Through a computer, you can run your advertisement on different platforms such as google,
youtube, bing, yahoo, or any other apps. There are many ads provider such as Google Ads,
Bing ads, Amazon Ads, LinkedIn Ads, Facebook Ads, etc, where you can promote your
business.

9. Data Management System

Data is an important contributor to the growth of any business and it is not possible that data
should be run on hard copy. computer plays a vital role in the data management system of a full
organization where you can store in digital format.Today, most companies store digital versions
of data on a computer or server. These documents become instantly available to everyone in
the company from any location. you can also store your data on the cloud with help of the
Internet and computer can be managed around the world.
10. Finance and Controlling

The contribution of finance and controlling of computers is commendable because nowadays

you cannot manage with hardcopy format. With the help of a computer, you can manage your
accounting sheet, asset, cash flow, expense, account payable, account receivable, capital, cash
flow, etc.

There is many software that can easily install on your computer. Some of the popular
accounting software such as Tally.ERP9, Vypar, Zoho Books, Quickbooks India, profit books,
Busy accounting, etc.

11. Management Information System

A management Information system is the key department of any company that provides
information on sales data, expense productivity of data, profitability over time, identity area for
improvement, etc. All the works are only possible through a computer.
Fields of study in computer science
Here are 15 computer science disciplines you can explore:

1. Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence, or AI, is the study and design of systems that can function autonomously from human input.
Examples of AI are programs that offer music recommendations based on your previous listening habits or programs
that can play complex games like chess against a human competitor. Some AI studies focus on creating machines
that can perform human tasks like visual perception or speech recognition. Machine learning is a subset of AI that
focuses specifically on the possibility of creating a machine that can use algorithms and programming to mirror the
processes of the human mind

2. Programming languages and logic

Programming languages are an integral part of computer science because most other disciplines use programming
languages to function. To use a computer, the programmer translates commands into a specific programming
language the computer can read. The study of programming languages and logic focuses on designing these
languages as well as analyzing them and characterizing and classifying their individual features.

3. Scientific computing applications

Scientific computing applications is a study of computer science that uses computer algorithms and modeling
capabilities to predict the outcome of scientific experiments that scientists can't conduct physically.

4. Theory of computation

Theory of computation is a discipline that focuses on determining what problems computational algorithms solve
and if can they solve them completely or partially. The ultimate purpose of this subject is to determine what the
fundamental capabilities and limitations of computers are.

5. Data structures and algorithms

This discipline focuses on the way data structures and algorithms can interact and how computer scientists can
improve them to create better computer programs. A data structure is a location where you can organize and store
data. An algorithm is a set of tasks you can command from a computer. You can use an algorithm to retrieve and
perform computations on the data, which creates a computer program.

6. Computer architecture and organization

This discipline focuses on the study, design, implementation and operation of a computer system. Architecture
focuses on how the design of hardware like computers, storage devices and network connection components store
programs, transmit data and facilitate connections with other devices. Organization is how those components
connect and how to optimize those connections.

7. Computer networks

The study of computer networks focuses on the analysis, design and implementation of networks that link computers
together.

8. Computer security in cryptography

This discipline of computer science focuses on how to protect information stored on computers. Cryptography is a
part of computer security developed to protect data.
9. Databases and data mining

The study of databases and data mining focuses on how computer scientists organize and store data. Big data is a
term for large sets of data that are collected from a specific source. Data mining is combing through that data to
identify patterns.

10. Computer graphics and visualization

This discipline of computer science focuses on the display of computer systems and the control of images on the
computer screen. This includes studying and improving the hardware capabilities of a computer. It also handles:

Rendering: Generating a realistic image from a two-dimensional model using a computer program.

Modeling: Generating probable outcomes based on a set of criteria.

Animation: Creating the effect of movement through a sequence of still images on a display screen.

Visualization: Interpreting data into a graphic form and interacting with the data to manipulate the graphic.

11. Image and sound processing

Image and sound processing focuses on studying the forms that information can take and how to interpret and
process that information. Studying how to translate images and sound into data sets accurately and then
manipulating those sets is the primary purpose of this discipline.

12. Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing

This discipline is the study of computers and networks that have multiple computations happening at once. The
central question of this topic is how to design machines or strategies that can improve the speed and correctness
with which these simultaneous tasks occur.

13. Human-computer interaction

This topic within computer science focuses on how users interact with computers and the user interface that
facilitates this interaction. The central aim of this discipline is to construct hardware and software that makes using
the computer easy and manageable for its user, without insisting on their knowing computer science.

14. Software engineering

Software engineering focuses on using engineering approaches to the theory and practice of building software
systems. The cost and time involved in developing complex software includes teams of computer scientists.

15. Information and coding theory

Information theory studies the transmission and processing of information. Coding theory studies how to translate
information into codes that can transmit information, as well as how to reduce the error rate when transmitting
data.
GENERATION OF LANGUAGES:

There are five generations of Programming languages. They are:

First Generation Languages :
These are low-level languages like machine language.
Second Generation Languages :
These are low-level assembly languages used in kernels and hardware
drives.
Third Generation Languages :
These are high-level languages like C, C++, Java, Visual Basic, and
JavaScript.
Fourth Generation Languages :
These are languages that consist of statements that are similar to
statements in the human language. These are used mainly in database
programming and scripting. Examples of these languages include
Perl, Python, Ruby, SQL, MatLab(MatrixLaboratory).
Fifth Generation Languages :
These are the programming languages that have visual tools to
develop a program. Examples of fifth-generation languages include
Mercury, OPS5, and Prolog.

The first two generations are called low-level languages. The next
three generations are called high-level languages.
COMPILER AND INTERPRETER