A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the

output. The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is
controlled by varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input
with some mechanism. In the next section on open loop and closed loop control
systems, we will study in detail about the blocks inside the control system and how to
vary this input in order to get the desired response.
Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of
input signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights
that will be on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be
off. Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights
can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic
lights control system operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following
ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and

discrete time control systems based on the type of the signal used.
 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But,
in discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control
systems based on the number of inputs and outputs present.
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one
output. Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems
have more than one input and more than one output.
Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop
control systems based on the feedback path.
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control
action is independent of the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or

controlling signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be
controlled. So, the plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights
control system which we discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control
system.
In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action
is dependent on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control
system.

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input
and the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback
elements) by considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block.
Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this
combination, the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the
desired response. Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the
automatic control systems. Traffic lights control system having sensor at the input is an
example of a closed loop control system.
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are
mentioned in the following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

Control action is independent of the desired Control action is dependent of the desired
output. output.

Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.

These are also called as non-feedback These are also called as feedback
control systems. control systems.

Easy to design. Difficult to design.

These are economical. These are costlier.

Inaccurate. Accurate.

Control Systems - Feedback

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If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized
as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important
role in order to improve the performance of the control systems. In this chapter, let us
discuss the types of feedback & effects of feedback.

Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback

The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s)R(s) and feedback output. The
following figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being,
consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,
T=G1−GHT=G1−GH (Equation 1)
Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s)R(s) and
system output. The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback
control system.
Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,
T=G1+GHT=G1+GH (Equation 2)
Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed
loop control system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may
increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case,
'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the
overall gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency
range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to
the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as
STG=∂TT∂GG=PercentagechangeinTPercentagechangeinGSGT=∂TT∂GG=Percentagecha
ngeinTPercentagechangeinG (Equation 3)
Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.
We can rewrite Equation 3 as
STG=∂T∂GGTSGT=∂T∂GGT (Equation 4)
Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.
∂T∂G=∂∂G(G1+GH)=(1+GH).1−G(H)
(1+GH)2=1(1+GH)2∂T∂G=∂∂G(G1+GH)=(1+GH).1−G(H)(1+GH)2=1(1+GH)2 (Equation
5)
From Equation 2, you will get
GT=1+GHGT=1+GH (Equation 6)
Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.
STG=1(1+GH)2(1+GH)=11+GHSGT=1(1+GH)2(1+GH)=11+GH
So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the
reciprocal of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value
of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH'
value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case,
'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the
sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other
frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that
the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to

be unstable.
 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of
the control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control
system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations
with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C(s)N(s)=GbC(s)N(s)=Gb (Equation 7)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s)R(s) equal to zero.
Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

C(s)N(s)=Gb1+GaGbHC(s)N(s)=Gb1+GaGbH (Equation 8)
It is obtained by making the other input R(s)R(s) equal to zero.
Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor
of (1+GaGbH)(1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH)(1+GaGbH) is
greater than one.
The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical
model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the
input and the output.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.

 Differential equation model

 Transfer function model
 State space model
Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model.
 Apply basic laws to the given control system.
 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).

Example

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The
input voltage applied to this circuit is vivi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage vovo.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

vi=Ri+Ldidt+vovi=Ri+Ldidt+vo

⇒vi=RCdvodt+LCd2vodt2+vo⇒vi=RCdvodt+LCd2vodt2+vo
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor i=cdvodti=cdvodt in the above equation.
 ⇒d2vodt2+(RL)dvodt+(1LC)vo=(1LC)vi⇒d2vodt2+
(RL)dvodt+(1LC)vo=(1LC)vi
The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function Model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The Transfer
function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of
output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
If x(t)x(t) and y(t)y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding
Laplace transforms are X(s)X(s) and Y(s)Y(s).
Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s)Y(s) and X(s)X(s).
i.e.,TransferFunction=Y(s)X(s)i.e.,TransferFunction=Y(s)X(s)
The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s)X(s) & output Y(s)Y(s).

Example

Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as

d2vodt2+(RL)dvodt+(1LC)vo=(1LC)vid2vodt2+(RL)dvodt+(1LC)vo=(1LC)vi
Apply Laplace transform on both sides.
s2Vo(s)+(sRL)Vo(s)+(1LC)Vo(s)=(1LC)Vi(s)s2Vo(s)+(sRL)Vo(s)
+(1LC)Vo(s)=(1LC)Vi(s)

⇒{s2+(RL)s+1LC}Vo(s)=(1LC)Vi(s)⇒{s2+(RL)s+1LC}Vo(s)=(1LC)Vi(s)
⇒Vo(s)Vi(s)=1LCs2+(RL)s+1LC⇒Vo(s)Vi(s)=1LCs2+(RL)s+1LC
Where,
 vi(s)vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vivi
 vo(s)vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vovo
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function inside
it. And this block has an input Vi(s)Vi(s) & an output Vo(s)Vo(s).
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In this chapter, let us discuss the differential equation modeling of mechanical

systems. There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

 Translational mechanical systems

 Rotational mechanical systems

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly
consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by
opposing forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied
force and the opposing forces are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the
forces acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the force opposed by these three
elements individually.

Mass

Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a
body having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This
opposing force is proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and
friction are negligible.
 Fm∝aFm∝a
⇒Fm=Ma=Md2xdt2⇒Fm=Ma=Md2xdt2
F=Fm=Md2xdt2F=Fm=Md2xdt2
Where,
 F is the applied force
 Fm is the opposing force due to mass
 M is mass
 a is acceleration
 x is displacement

Spring

Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K,

then it is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force
is proportional to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are
negligible.

F∝xF∝x
 ⇒Fk=Kx⇒Fk=Kx
F=Fk=KxF=Fk=Kx
Where,
 F is the applied force
 Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
 K is spring constant
 x is displacement

Dashpot

If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due

to friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the
body. Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.

Fb∝νFb∝ν
⇒Fb=Bν=Bdxdt⇒Fb=Bν=Bdxdt
F=Fb=BdxdtF=Fb=Bdxdt
Where,
 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot
 B is the frictional coefficient
 v is velocity
 x is displacement

Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist
of three basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing
torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied
torque and the opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of
torques acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these
three elements individually.

Moment of Inertia

In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational

mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.
If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an
opposing torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to
angular acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

Tj∝αTj∝α
⇒Tj=Jα=Jd2θdt2⇒Tj=Jα=Jd2θdt2
T=Tj=Jd2θdt2T=Tj=Jd2θdt2
Where,
 T is the applied torque
 Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia
 J is moment of inertia
 α is angular acceleration
 θ is angular displacement

Torsional Spring

In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in

rotational mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque
due to the elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the
angular displacement of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and
friction are negligible.

Tk∝θTk∝θ
⇒Tk=Kθ⇒Tk=Kθ
T=Tk=KθT=Tk=Kθ
Where,
 T is the applied torque
 Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring
 K is the torsional spring constant
 θ is angular displacement

Dashpot

If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to

the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the
angular velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.
 Tb∝ωTb∝ω
⇒Tb=Bω=Bdθdt⇒Tb=Bω=Bdθdt
T=Tb=BdθdtT=Tb=Bdθdt
Where,
 Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot
 B is the rotational friction coefficient
 ω is the angular velocity
 θ is the angular displacement
Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.

 The two systems are physically different

 Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are two
types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage
analogy and force current analogy.

Force Voltage Analogy

In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.
The force balanced equation for this system is
F=Fm+Fb+FkF=Fm+Fb+Fk
⇒F=Md2xdt2+Bdxdt+Kx⇒F=Md2xdt2+Bdxdt+Kx (Equation 1)
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in a series.
The input voltage applied to this circuit is VV volts and the current flowing through the circuit
is ii Amps.

Mesh equation for this circuit is

V=Ri+Ldidt+1c∫idtV=Ri+Ldidt+1c∫idt (Equation 2)
Substitute, i=dqdti=dqdt in Equation 2.
V=Rdqdt+Ld2qdt2+qCV=Rdqdt+Ld2qdt2+qC
⇒V=Ld2qdt2+Rdqdt+(1c)q⇒V=Ld2qdt2+Rdqdt+(1c)q (Equation 3)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Voltage(V)

Mass(M) Inductance(L)

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)(1c)

Displacement(x) Charge(q)

Velocity(v) Current(i)

Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now discuss
about this analogy.

Torque Voltage Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared
with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

T=Tj+Tb+TkT=Tj+Tb+Tk
⇒T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ⇒T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ (Equation 4)
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Voltage(V)

Moment of Inertia(J) Inductance(L)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1c)(1c)

Angular Displacement(θ) Charge(q)

Angular Velocity(ω) Current(i)

Force Current Analogy

In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical
system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in
parallel.

The nodal equation is

i=VR+1L∫Vdt+CdVdti=VR+1L∫Vdt+CdVdt (Equation 5)
Substitute, V=dΨdtV=dΨdt in Equation 5.
i=1RdΨdt+(1L)Ψ+Cd2Ψdt2i=1RdΨdt+(1L)Ψ+Cd2Ψdt2
⇒i=Cd2Ψdt2+(1R)dΨdt+(1L)Ψ⇒i=Cd2Ψdt2+(1R)dΨdt+(1L)Ψ (Equation 6)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these
analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Current(i)

Mass(M) Capacitance(C)

Frictional coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1R)(1R)

Spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1L)(1L)

Displacement(x) Magnetic Flux(ψ)

Velocity(v) Voltage(V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.

Torque Current Analogy

In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are compared
with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

 Rotational friction coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1R)(1R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1L)(1L)

Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)

In this chapter, we discussed the electrical analogies of the mechanical systems. These analogies
are helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like mechanical system from
analogous electrical system.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in
the following figure to identify these elements.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and
H(s). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the
direction of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

Block

The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input
and single output.
The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer
function G(s).

⇒Y(s)=G(s)X(s)⇒Y(s)=G(s)X(s)
Transfer Function,G(s)=Y(s)X(s)G(s)=Y(s)X(s)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

Summing Point

The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also
performs the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of
the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by
one.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the
output, Y as sum of A and B.
i.e.,Y = A + B.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign
and B is having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as
the difference of A and B.
Y = A + (-B) = A - B.
The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one
output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a
negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as
Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Take-off Point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the
same input to one or more blocks, summing points.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two
more blocks.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of
the inputs to the summing point.

Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical
systems contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor.
Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure. Where, V i(t) and Vo(t)
are the input and output voltages. Let i(t) be the current passing through the circuit.
This circuit is in time domain.
By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The
circuit is as shown in the following figure.

From the above circuit, we can write

I(s)=Vi(s)−Vo(s)R+sLI(s)=Vi(s)−Vo(s)R+sL
⇒I(s)={1R+sL}{Vi(s)−Vo(s)}⇒I(s)={1R+sL}{Vi(s)−Vo(s)} (Equation 1)
Vo(s)=(1sC)I(s)Vo(s)=(1sC)I(s) (Equation 2)
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then
combine those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of
series of RLC Circuit (s-domain).
Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, 1R+sL1R+sL.
The input and output of this block are {Vi(s)−Vo(s)}{Vi(s)−Vo(s)} and I(s)I(s). We
require a summing point to get {Vi(s)−Vo(s)}{Vi(s)−Vo(s)}. The block diagram of
Equation 1 is shown in the following figure.
Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1sC1sC. The
input and output of this block are I(s)I(s) and Vo(s)Vo(s). The block diagram of
Equation 2 is shown in the following figure.

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the
following figure.

Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by
following this simple procedure.
 Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by
applying Laplace transform.
 Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch
elements and voltage across all shunt branches.
 Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.
 Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block
diagram of the electrical circuit (s-domain).
Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of
the block diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic
equations.

Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

Series Connection

Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two
blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s)Y(s) as

Y(s)=G2(s)Z(s)Y(s)=G2(s)Z(s)

⇒Y(s)=G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]=G1(s)G2(s)X(s)⇒Y(s)=G2(s)
Where, Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)

[G1(s)X(s)]=G1(s)G2(s)X(s)

⇒Y(s)={G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)⇒Y(s)={G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output
equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s)Y(s)=G(s)X(s).
Where, G(s)=G1(s)G2(s)G(s)=G1(s)G2(s).
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those
‘n’ blocks.
Parallel Connection

The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are
connected in parallel. The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing
point.

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s)Y(s) as

Y(s)=Y1(s)+Y2(s)Y(s)=Y1(s)+Y2(s)
Where, Y1(s)=G1(s)X(s)Y1(s)=G1(s)X(s) and Y2(s)=G2(s)X(s)Y2(s)=G2(s)X(s

⇒Y(s)=G1(s)X(s)+G2(s)X(s)={G1(s)+G2(s)}X(s)⇒Y(s)=G1(s)X(s)
)

+G2(s)X(s)={G1(s)+G2(s)}X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output
equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s)Y(s)=G(s)X(s).
Where, G(s)=G1(s)+G2(s)G(s)=G1(s)+G2(s).
That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all
those ‘n’ blocks.
Feedback Connection

As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive

feedback and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control
system. Here, two blocks having transfer functions G(s)G(s) and H(s)H(s) form a
closed loop.

The output of the summing point is -

E(s)=X(s)−H(s)Y(s)E(s)=X(s)−H(s)Y(s)
The output Y(s)Y(s) is -
Y(s)=E(s)G(s)Y(s)=E(s)G(s)
Substitute E(s)E(s) value in the above equation.
Y(s)={X(s)−H(s)Y(s)}G(s)}Y(s)={X(s)−H(s)Y(s)}G(s)}
Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)}=X(s)G(s)}Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)}=X(s)G(s)}
⇒Y(s)X(s)=G(s)1+G(s)H(s)⇒Y(s)X(s)=G(s)1+G(s)H(s)
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function
is G(s)1+G(s)H(s)G(s)1+G(s)H(s)
This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the positive feedback, i.e., G(s)1−G(s)H(s)G(s)1−G(s)H(s)

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting summing point after the block

 Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases
one by one.

Shifting Summing Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

Summing point has two inputs R(s)R(s) and X(s)X(s). The output of it is {R(s)
+X(s)}{R(s)+X(s)}.
So, the input to the block G(s)G(s) is {R(s)+X(s)}{R(s)+X(s)} and the output of it
is –
Y(s)=G(s){R(s)+X(s)}Y(s)=G(s){R(s)+X(s)}
⇒Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s)⇒Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Equation 1)
Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.
Output of the block G(s)G(s) is G(s)R(s)G(s)R(s).
The output of the summing point is
Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s)Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) (Equation 2)
Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is
difference in the second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require
one more block G(s)G(s). It is having the input X(s)X(s) and the output of this block
is given as input to summing point instead of X(s)X(s). This block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block.
Output of this block diagram is -
Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s)Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) (Equation 3)
Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Output of this block diagram is -

Y(S)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s)Y(S)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Equation 4)
Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference
in the second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more
block 1G(s)1G(s). It is having the input X(s)X(s) and the output of this block is given as
input to summing point instead of X(s)X(s). This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.
Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points
There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting take-off point after the block

 Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one
by one.

Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off
point is present before the block.

Here, X(s)=R(s)X(s)=R(s) and Y(s)=G(s)R(s)Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s)Y(s) will be same. But,
there is difference in X(s)X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s)X(s) value, we
require one more block 1G(s)1G(s). It is having the input Y(s)Y(s) and the output
is X(s)X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
present after the block.

Here, X(s)=Y(s)=G(s)R(s)X(s)=Y(s)=G(s)R(s)
When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s)Y(s) will be same.
But, there is difference in X(s)X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s)X(s) value, we
require one more block G(s)G(s). It is having the input R(s)R(s) and the output
is X(s)X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.
The concepts discussed in the previous chapter are helpful for reducing (simplifying)
the block diagrams.

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.
 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards
right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards
left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single
block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the
overall block diagram.

Example

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this
block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.
Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1G1 and G2G2. Use Rule 2 for
blocks G3G3 and G4G4. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2G1G2 and H1H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off
point after the block G5G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following
figure.
Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4)(G3+G4) and G5G5. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5(G3+G4)G5 and H3H3. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure.

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Y(s)R(s)=G1G2G25(G3+G4)(1+G1G2H1){1+
(G3+G4)G5H3}G5−G1G2G5(G3+G4)H2Y(s)R(s)=G1G2G52(G3+G4)
(1+G1G2H1){1+(G3+G4)G5H3}G5−G1G2G5(G3+G4)H2
Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block
diagram having multiple inputs.
 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at
a time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
 Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems.
Because, we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So,
to overcome this drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).
In the next two chapters, we will discuss about the concepts related to signal flow
graphs, i.e., how to represent signal flow graph from a given block diagram and
calculation of transfer function just by using a gain formula without doing any reduction
process.
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter,
let us discuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw
signal flow graphs.

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph

Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.

Node

Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of
nodes — input node, output node and mixed node.
 Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
 Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
 Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.

Example

Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

 The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
 y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
 y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.

Branch

Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For
example, there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches
have gains of a, b, c and -d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations −
y2=a12y1+a42y4y2=a12y1+a42y4
y3=a23y2+a53y5y3=a23y2+a53y5
y4=a34y3y4=a34y3
y5=a45y4+a35y3y5=a45y4+a35y3
y6=a56y5y6=a56y5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow
graph. The gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.
To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, then
combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below −
Step 1 − Signal flow graph for y2=a13y1+a42y4y2=a13y1+a42y4 is shown in the
following figure.

Step 2 − Signal flow graph for y3=a23y2+a53y5y3=a23y2+a53y5 is shown in the

following figure.

Step 3 − Signal flow graph for y4=a34y3y4=a34y3 is shown in the following figure.
Step 4 − Signal flow graph for y5=a45y4+a35y3y5=a45y4+a35y3 is shown in the
following figure.

Step 5 − Signal flow graph for y6=a56y5y6=a56y5 is shown in the following figure.

Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the following figure.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of
the branches in signal flow graph.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two
nodes (but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch
as one. For example, between summing points, between summing point and
takeoff point, between input and summing point, between take-off point and
output.

Example

Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

Represent the input signal R(s)R(s) and output signal C(s)C(s) of block diagram as
input node R(s)R(s) and output node C(s)C(s) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y 1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram.
There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four
summing points, four nodes for four take-off points and one node for the variable
between blocks G1G1 and G2G2.
The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.
With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next chapter), you can
calculate the transfer function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal
flow graphs. Here, we no need to simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs for
calculating the transfer function.
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