PHYSICS

Standard
X
Part 1

Government of Kerala
Department of General Education

Prepared by

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Kerala

2025
 THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
Jana-gana-mana adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga
Tava subha name jage,
Tava subha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha.
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he

PLEDGE
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give respect to my parents, teachers, and all elders, and
treat everyone with courtesy.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion. In their
well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in
e-mail : [email protected], Phone : 0471 - 2341883,
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
First Edition : 2025
Printed at : KBPS, Kakkanad, Kochi-30
© Department of General Education, Government of Kerala
 PREFACE

Dear learners,
This book is designed to help you understand the basic
concepts and principles of Physics, and inspire you to pursue
inquisitive exploration to attain the ability and confidence
to apply them in real life situations and contexts.
This textbook will lead you through the frontiers of
knowledge and awe−inspiring experiences to the depths of
Physics. Your science laboratories will sprout new life when
each sight raises the question in you - how and why? The
ideas and concepts thus acquired will enable you to have
lofty dreams to contemplate on and fulfill them through
action.
Each activity in this book will change your perspective
from I to We, upholding the notion that science is for
the betterment of society. May you be able to raise new
questions, share knowledge, arrive at the apt concepts,
impart them to the society and lay the scientific foundation
for countering superstitions with science.

Dr.Jayaprakash R K
Director
SCERT, Kerala
 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
Advisor Chairperson
Dr. Salahuddin Kunju A Prof. P S Sobhen
Principal (Rtd.) Head (Rtd.), Department of Physics
University College, Thiruvananthapuram Maharaja's College, Ernakulam
Experts
Dr. N Shaji Dr. P Sethu Madhavan Dr. B Premlet
Adjunct Faculty Prof. (Rtd.) Prof. (Rtd.)
Department of Physics SNG College, TKM College of Engineering,
CUSAT, Kochi Kozhikode Kollam
Writers
Sunilkumar M Unnikrishnan T I Shaji K V
BPC, BRC Cheruvathur, Headmaster (Rtd.) HST (Physical Science)
GHS, Vazhamuttom
Kasaragod AKKRHS for Boys, Pachalloor,
Bhavana R Kozhikode Thiruvananthapuram
HST (Physical Science) Unnikrishnan M Sureshkumar K
TEMVHSS, Mylode, HST (Physical Science) HST (Rtd.), (Physical Science)
Kollam Brothers HSS, AMHSS, Thirumala,
Pradeepkumar K V Mavandiyur, Malappuram Thiruvananthapuram
HST (Rtd.) (Physical Kanchana R
Science) HST (Physical Science)
Muthedath HSS,
Thalipparambu, Kannur GHSS Thottakkonam,
Pathanamthitta
English Version
Dr. Manoj Kumar N Anjali C K Annie Joseph
Asst. Professor, Asst. Professor (Former) HSST English ( Rtd.)
Dept. of Physics, Dept. of Language & Literature St.Joseph's AIGHSS
Payyanur College, Kannur St.Joseph's College, Devagiri, Kozhikode.
Kozhikode
Pradeep K Baby John Thottam
HST Physical Science (Rtd.) HST Physical Science
GVHSS Koyilandy St. Joseph's Anglo-Indian
Girls' HSS, Kozhikode.
Artists
Mustajib E C Lohithakshan K
MMETHSS Melmuri, Assisi HSS for Deaf
Malappuram Malapparambu, Malappuram
Academic Co ordinator
Dr. Ancey Varughese
Asst. Professor, SCERT
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
 Contents

1 Sound Waves------------------------------------------------------------ 7

2 Lenses --------------------------------------------------------------------- 27

3 The World of Colours and Vision----------------------------- 49

4 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current ----------------------- 69

Certain icons are used

in this textbook for convenience

For further reading ICT Possibilities

(Evaluation not required)

Questions that may be Let's Assess

raised by students

Continuous assessment questions Extended Activities

 1 Sound Waves
Teacher, she Yes, that's
has completed right.
ten swings. Only five
Please ask her swings
to get off the
swing. Now it's I have
my turn. completed
only five
swings,
teacher

Why did the teacher agree with the child on the swing?

How should the swings be counted?

• What type of motion does the swing have?

(circular / oscillatory)
Observe the diagram showing the motion of the swing.
• What is the initial position of the swing when it starts oscillating
Fig. 1.1 (a)
from its free state (equilibrium position)?
(A / O / B)
Oscillation is a periodic motion in which an object moves to and fro
at regular intervals of time about its equilibrium position.
Physics Standard - X

• In the figure, what is the maximum displacement to one side from

the equilibrium position?
(2a, 2a , a)
The magnitude of maximum displacement to one side from its
equilibrium position is amplitude. The symbol of amplitude is a. The SI
unit of amplitude is metre (m).

• When does the swing complete one oscillation?

(when the pendulum starts from O, reaches A and returns to O / when
the pendulum starts from O, reaches A, then to B and back to O)
A swing completes one oscillation when the pendulum starts
from O, goes to both sides and then returns to O [Fig 1.1(b)].
Fig. 1.1(b)
An oscillation is completed when the body returns to its
initial position in the same direction from where it started.
What if counting starts from A? A swing completes one
Fig. 1.1(c)
oscillation when it starts from A, reaches B and returns to A
[Fig 1.1 (c)].
What could be the reason that the number of
oscillations counted by the child waiting for his turn
to swing and the child on the swing were different?
Discuss and find out. Now you have understood
how to count oscillations accurately.
Give more examples of oscillatory motion.
• Motion of the pendulum of a clock
•
Have you ever noticed how many oscillations the
Fig. 1.2 pendulum in a clock completes for a time change of
In early pendulum clocks one minute?
(Grandfather’s clock), pendulum
• If a pendulum takes 1 minute to complete 30
(seconds pendulum) of length
99.35 cm (about 1 m) was used. It oscillations, how long does it take to complete
was made of an alloy called invar one oscillation?
(invar-invariable). Time for 30 oscillations = 1 minute = 60 s
Time for 1 oscillation = 60 s
30 = 2 s

8
 Sound Waves

The time taken for one oscillation is called

period. Its symbol is T. SI unit of period is
second (s).

• Find the number of oscillations the same Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

pendulum completes in one second. Lifetime : 1857 ‍‍- 1894
Number of oscillations in 1 minute (60 s) = 30 Place of birth : Hamburg, Germany
Major contributions : Experimentally
∴ Number of oscillations in 1 second = 30
60 proved the presence of electromagnetic
= 2 = 0.5 waves. Laid the foundation for the
1
future advancements of the radio,
The number of oscillations in one telephone, telegraph and television.
second is called frequency. The SI unit Discovered photoelectric effect. The
of frequency is hertz (Hz). Frequency is unit of frequency was named hertz, to
honour him.
denoted by the letter f.

Let’s find the period and frequency of a pendulum

by swinging it at low amplitude. Tie a bob to a
string and hang it on a stand. This system is called ,
a simple pendulum. Complete table 1.1 by doing
an experiment using a simple pendulum, meter
scale, and a stopwatch.
Fig. 1.3
Length Period (T) Frequency (f)
of the Time taken Total time Number of oscillations
= =
pendulum for 10 Number of oscillations Time
(,) oscillations
cm s s Hz
25
60
100
Table 1.1
• What is the change in frequency when the length of the pendulum
increases? (increases / decreases)
When the length of the pendulum increases, frequency decreases.
PhET→ Pendulum
• What is the relation between period and frequency? bob
The time required for one oscillation = T
9
Number of oscillations per second = f
Physics Standard - X

1
Frequency (f) =
period (T)
In radio and television transmission As the period increases, frequency decreases.
you may have heard the units
kilohertz and megahertz. These are Aren't tuning forks used for experiments connected
also practical units of frequency. with sound? Have you noticed the marking on
1 kHz =1000 Hz = 103 Hz
them? Observe various tuning forks and note down
the markings on each of them with their units.
1 MHz =1000000 Hz = 106 Hz
• 256 Hz

Is there any relation between the marking on the

tuning fork and its number of vibrations?
The marking on a tuning fork indicates the frequency of the tuning
fork. Excite tuning forks of different frequencies in a similar manner
and listen to the sound.
• Do you feel any difference?
Note the frequency marked on each of them.
• Isn't the difference in frequency the reason for the difference in
sound here?
Find the number of times each tuning fork vibrates independently in
one second using the ICT facility (Audio Frequency Counter).

When an object vibrates freely, it vibrates in its innate frequency. This is

the natural frequency of that object.

Factors that influence the natural frequency of an object :

 Length of the object  Size of the object  Elasticity

 Nature of the material etc.
Change in any one of these factors will affect the natural frequency
of an object.

Do all objects vibrate only in their natural frequency?

10
 Sound Waves

Forced Vibration & Resonance

Have you ever felt the vibration of the table when a mixie kept on
the table works?
Excite a tuning fork and listen to it. What is the change
in the sound heard when the stem of the excited tuning
fork is pressed on the table? What could be the reason
for the sound being louder?
In this case, the sound became louder because the
table also vibrated along with the tuning fork.
Forced vibration is the vibration of an object
induced by an external vibrating object.

Observe figure 1.5 (a). Fig. 1.4

Try the activities given below using the device in

which two sets of three identical hacksaw blades each
of length about 13 cm and 17 cm are fixed between
two wooden blocks.
• Excite the hacksaw blade A by tapping with your
finger. What do you observe?
(all blades vibrate / only A vibrates) Fig. 1.5 (a)
• Are all the blades vibrating with the same
amplitude?
• Which of them vibrates with maximum amplitude?
• After all the blades have stopped vibrating, excite B and record the
observation in the science diary.
• When blade A vibrates why would the hacksaw blades C and E
vibrate with maximum amplitude?
Since the natural frequency of C and E are equal to the natural
frequency of A, they vibrate with maximum amplitude.

If the natural frequency of the forcing object and that of the forced
object are equal, the objects are said to be in resonance. The objects
undergoing resonance will vibrate with maximum amplitude.

11
Physics Standard - X

• Immerse in water a PVC pipe of about 50 cm length and 4 cm

(1½ inch) diameter. Excite a tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz and
hold it close to the mouth of the pipe. Vary the length of the air
column inside the pipe by gradually raising both the tuning fork
and the pipe. Don’t you hear a louder sound at a particular stage?
What could be the reason for this? Record in your science diary.
Applications of forced vibration and resonance
 MRI scanning
 Radio tuning
 In musical instruments like guitar, violin, veena, harmonium,
Fig. 1.5 (b)
mridangam etc.
 Can't you hear even the faintest sound of the heartbeat when you
listen to it using a stethoscope? A stethoscope used to listen to
even a feeble sound in the body utilises forced vibration and
resonance.
 In instruments like megaphones, horns and musical instruments
such as trumpets and nagaswaram.

The frequency of a simple pendulum is 1 Hz. What is

Fig. 1.6 (a)
its period?
If a pendulum takes 0.5 s to complete one oscillation,
what is its frequency?
A tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz is excited and its
stem is pressed on a table. Does the table vibrate in this
situation? What is this phenomenon known as?
Fig. 1.6 (b)
When a tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz vibrates, the air around it
and the eardrum of the person hearing that sound vibrate 256 times
per second.

How does the air near it vibrate when the tuning fork
vibrates?

Wave Motion
A child conducted an experiment in connection with the transmission
of sound in the school science club. A scene during the experiment
is illustrated here.
12
 Sound Waves

Place light paper balls

inside a long, transparent
tube closed at one end. Pass
a loud sound with uniform
frequency through the free
Fig. 1.7
end of the tube. The paper
balls are seen vibrating
back and forth from their equilibrium position. Without moving
the paper balls to the other end, they are found to be close in some
regions and apart in some other regions alternately. How is it
formed? PhET→ Sound waves

Let's do an activity.
Stretch both ends of a slinky placed on a table as shown in
figure 1.8 (a).
Compress and release a few coils at one
end of the slinky. Notice the disturbance
formed in the slinky.
Move one end of the slinky back and
forth as shown in figure 1.8 (b). What do Fig. 1.8 (a)
you observe?
Don’t you see the disturbances formed in the
slinky moving from one end to the other?
• Are the coils in the slinky moving towards
the other end along with the disturbances? Fig. 1.8 (b)
It is seen that the disturbance formed in one part of the slinky spreads
to the other parts without any displacement of the coil.
Here the energy received in one part of the medium spreads to the
other parts by transferring it to the adjacent part and so on.
Wave motion is one of the modes of transfer of energy from one part
of the medium to other parts.
The continuous propagation of energy from one part to the other
parts through oscillations is called wave motion.

13
Physics Standard - X

Some examples of waves are given below :

 Radio waves
 Seismic waves
 Light waves
 Sound waves
 Ripples on the surface of water
• Do all these waves require a medium to travel? Complete table 1.2
appropriately.
Waves that require a medium Waves that do not require a medium
for transmission for transmission
• Seismic waves • Radio waves
• •

Table 1.2

Electromagnetic Waves
Radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet
rays, X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves. They do
not require a medium for transmission.
Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves are those that require a medium for transmission.
Mechanical waves are mainly of two types. They are longitudinal
waves and transverse waves.
Longitudinal Waves
• In figure 1.8 (b), did the coils in the slinky move parallel or
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave?
Longitudinal waves are those in which the particles in the medium
vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

We have studied that sound requires a

medium for transmission. Let's see how
sound travels through air. Observe the
picture.
Pressure variations occurring in air
when the tuning fork vibrates
Fig 1.9
14
 Sound Waves

• In figure 1.9, as the prong of the tuning fork moves from the
equilibrium position to the side A, the air pressure on that side
(increases / decreases).
• What about the air pressure on side A when the same prong moves
to side B?
• When the prongs of the tuning fork vibrate continuously, aren’t
regions of high and low pressure formed intermittently in the air?
• Compare the wave produced in the slinky with the wave produced
by the tuning fork in the air.
Sound from a source creates continuous and regular pressure
variations in the air. A region of high pressure is created where
distance between the air molecules decreases. Such regions are
called compressions (the region denoted by C in the figure) and a
region of low pressure is called rarefactions (the region denoted by R
in the figure). Sound travels through a medium forming alternating
compressions and rarefactions. You have now understood that sound
is a longitudinal wave.
Transverse Waves
Try an activity.
Fix a spring vertically on a table using a nail.
Tie one end of a string to the top of the spring
and the other end to a 50 g slotted weight. Pass
the string through the pulley fixed at the end of Fig. 1.10 (a)
the table as shown in the figure.
Press and release the spring continuously. What do you observe?
• What is the direction of motion of the particles in the string, with
respect to the equilibrium position? (parallel / perpendicular)
• Does each point on the string move parallel or
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of the wave formed in the string?
• Do the particles on the string undergo
resultant translatory motion other than
moving vertically up and down from their
equilibrium position? Fig. 1.10 (b)

15
Physics Standard - X

When the particles of a medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of

propagation of the wave they are called transverse waves.
Observe the transverse waveform shown in figure 1.10 (b). In transverse
waves, the elevated portions from the equilibrium position are called crests
and the lowest portions from the equilibrium position are called troughs.
Place a slinky on a table. Stretch both
ends of it. Hold one end of the slinky and
oscillate it as shown in figure 1.10 (c).
• Are the coils moving parallel or
Fig. 1.10 (c) perpendicular to the waveform created
on the slinky?
• What type of waveform is formed in the slinky?
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
Some of the characteristics related to transverse waves
and longitudinal waves are given below. Classify them and
complete the table.
• Particles in the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
PhET→ Wave on a propagation of the wave.
String • Compressions and rarefactions are formed.
• Pressure variations occur in the medium.
• Crests and troughs are formed.
• Particles in the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
• No pressure variations occur in the medium.

Longitudinal waves Transverse waves

• Particles in the medium Particles in the medium vibrate perpendicular
vibrate parallel to the to the direction of propagation of the wave.
direction of propagation •
of the wave.
•

Table 1.3

What are the features of waves?

16
 Sound Waves

Characteristics of Waves
The main characteristics of waves are :
 Amplitude  Frequency
 Period  Wavelength  Speed of wave
Amplitude
The displacement-time graph of a
particle in a wave is depicted.
• In the figure, which are the points
with maximum displacement
from the equilibrium position of
the wave? Fig. 1.11
(A, B, C, D, E)
• What is the amplitude of this wave? Cycle
Period A cycle is one complete
• In figure 1.11, what is the time taken by the particle in the oscillation of a particle in
wave motion.
medium to complete one vibration?
• What is the period of the wave in the figure?
Frequency
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles that pass
Fig. 1.12
through a point in one second.
• If the wave shown in figure 1.11 takes 1 s to travel from
O to D, find the frequency of the wave.
Wavelength
The state of the particles in a wave at a particular time is depicted in
figure 1.13 (a).
Wavelength is the distance
between two consecutive particles
which are in the same phase
of vibration. It is the distance
travelled by the wave during the
time taken by each particle in the
Fig. 1.13 (a)
medium to complete one vibration.
The distance between two consecutive crests or two consecutive troughs
is also considered as the wavelength of a transverse wave.
17
Physics Standard - X

The Greek letter λ (lambda) is used to denote wavelength. The unit of

wavelength is metre (m).
• In figure 1.13 (a), which particle is in the same phase of vibration as
particle A? (B, C, D, E)
• In the case of particle P?
• In the case of particle B?
• In figure 1.13 (b), which represents the wavelength (λ)? (CR, RR)
• Here CR represents (λ, m m
2, 4 )
The distance between two
consecutive compressions or
two consecutive rarefactions is
considered as the wavelength of
Fig. 1.13 (b) a longitudinal wave.
Speed of wave
The speed of a wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
The unit of speed of a wave is m/s.
• If a wave travels 700 m in 2 s, what is the speed of the wave?

Is there a relation between frequency and wavelength?

Place a slinky on a table. Stretch both ends of it. Hold one end of the
slinky and oscillate it to produce a transverse waveform. Then increase the
frequency of oscillation. Observe the change in frequency and wavelength
of the waveform generated in the slinky.
If the frequency of the wave is changed, will the wavelength change?
An illustration of two waves of the same amplitude passing through a
medium at the same time interval is given.

• In figure 1.14 (a), what is the

Fig. 1.14 (a)
wavelength of the wave?
• What is the wavelength of the
wave in figure 1.14 (b)?
Fig. 1.14 (b)

• In figure 1.14 (a), if both the waves take 1 s to travel a distance of

12 m, what is the frequency of the wave?
18
 Sound Waves

• In figure 1.14 (b), what is the frequency of the wave?

• Which wave has a longer wavelength?
• Which wave has a higher frequency?
• What is the relation between wavelength and frequency?
The time taken by both the waves to travel a distance of 12 m is
equal. So the speed of the wave will be equal.
When the speed is constant, frequency of the wave is inversely proportional
1
to the wavelength. f ∝ m

The relation between the speed of wave, frequency and wavelength

Analyse figure 1.15 and answer the
questions given below.
• What is the wavelength (λ)?
• If the wave takes 1 s to reach A from O,
what is the frequency (f)?
• Isn’t the speed of a wave the distance Fig.1.15
travelled by it in one second? What is
the speed of the wave (v)?
• Find the relation between wavelength, frequency and speed of a wave. It is found that
the speed of a wave is the product of its wavelength and frequency.
Speed of a wave = frequency × wavelength
ie, v = f λ
The state of the
particles in a wave
at a particular time
is depicted in the
Fig.1.16
figure.
a) How many crests are there in the figure?
b) How many troughs are there?
c) What is the wavelength?
If the frequency of a longitudinal wave travelling at a speed of
350 m/s in the air is 35 Hz,
a) What is the distance between two consecutive compressions
of this wave?
b) What about the distance between two consecutive
rarefactions? 19
Physics Standard - X

A sound wave with a frequency of 175 Hz has a wavelength

of 2 m. Calculate the speed of sound.

Sound and light are waves. Light reflects. Can sound

also reflect?
Reflection of Sound
Do sound waves reflect when they hit objects? Let’s see.
Arrange two PVC pipes of 1 metre in length,
a glass plate and an alarm clock as shown in
the figure.
Adjust the pipe B at different angles and
listen to the ticking sound from the clock.
What could be the reason for the ticking
sound being heard from the clock through
Fig. 1.17
the pipe B?
The sound is heard through the pipe B
because sound waves reflect after striking
the glass plate.
Repeat the experiment using rough surfaces instead of glass plate.
• Don’t you feel a decrease in the loudness of the reflecting sound?
What is the reason?
Smooth surfaces reflect sound more effectively than rough surfaces.

Reflection of sound is utilised in :

 Soundboards [Fig.1.18 (a)]

 Curved ceilings in halls
[Fig. 1.18 (b)]
These help to reflect sound from
a source and spread it to all parts
of the hall.

Fig. 1.18 (b)

Fig. 1.18 (a)

20
 Sound Waves

Multiple Reflection of Sound

The figure shows how sound from a source
reaches a listener in a closed hall.
• Does sound from a source always travel
directly to the listener?
Reflected sound waves get reflected again.
This is multiple reflection of sound.
Fig. 1.19

Are there instances when reflected sounds are heard

distinctly?

Echo
Have you ever had the experience of making
a loud sound at the echo point and hearing the
same sound again after a while?
While speaking loudly in a closed and empty
large hall and calling or clapping loudly at a
distance from a great mountain, isn’t it possible
Fig. 1.20
to hear the same sound again after a while?
This is possible due to the phenomenon of echo.

Echo is the sound heard after a while due to the reflection of the initial
sound.

Why don’t we hear echo inside a small room?

What should be the minimum distance from the listener to the

reflecting surface, if the first sound is to be heard distinctly after
reflection?
1
The auditory experience produced by a sound persists for about 10
of a second. This characteristic is known as persistence of hearing.
If another sound falls on the ear during this time, it is felt as if they
are heard together.

21
Physics Standard - X

• How long will it take to hear the echo distinctly after hearing the first
sound?
• How far does the sound travel during this time?
(Consider the speed of sound in air as 350 m/s.)
Distance = speed × time
= 350 m/s × c 10 m s = 35 m
1

For the echo to be heard, the reflecting surface must be at least 17.5 m
away, ie, half of 35 m. If the distance to the reflecting surface is more than
17.5 m, the same sound can be heard and distinguished again.
The echo of fire cracker (kathina) is heard after 1 s by the
person who burst it. How far is the reflecting surface from the
person hearing the echo? (speed of sound in air is 350 m/s).
Let d be the distance to the reflecting surface. Then the total distance
travelled by the sound to the reflecting surface and back will be 2d.
Speed of sound = Total distance travelled
Time
2d
v = t
^v # t h ^350 # 1 h m
d= 2 = 2 = 175 m. The reflecting surface will be 175 m
away.
What should be the minimum distance between the source and
the reflecting surface to hear the echo in water? (Consider the
speed of sound in water as 1480 m/s)

If sound is made in an empty room, why is a boom

felt?

Reverberation
Even if a small sound is produced inside the
whispering gallery of Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur,
Karnataka, it can be heard repeatedly throughout
the gallery. This is due to the boom caused by the
multiple reflections of sound waves on the spherical
walls.
Fig. 1.21

22
 Sound Waves

Reverberation is the lingering of sound, even after the original sound has
ceased. It is due to the multiple reflection of sound and the boom fades
away gradually.

Why are the walls of large halls like cinema theatres made rough?

Can a person with normal hearing ability hear all sounds?

Limits of audibility
Note the limits of frequency of sound audible to humans in figure 1.22.

Infrasonic audible to humans ultrasonic

seismic waves dogs
pigeons
moths
elephants

bats
cats

Fig. 1.22

The frequency of sound produced in a

galton whistle used for training dogs is
about 30000 Hz.
• Can humans hear the sound of a galton
whistle?
There are high and low-frequency
sounds in nature. But humans cannot
hear the sound of all frequencies. Fig. 1.23
That is, there is a limit to the range of frequency of sounds that
humans can hear. For a person with normal hearing, the lower
limit of audible sound is about 20 Hz and the upper limit is about
20000 Hz (20 kHz). Sound with a frequency below 20 Hz is
infrasonic. Sound with frequency more than 20000 Hz is ultrasonic.
23
Physics Standard - X

Using ultrasonic sound, bats

can travel smoothly and catch
prey easily even in the dark.
Ultrasonic waves are used in
many situations.

Fig. 1.24

Uses of Ultrasonic Waves

In the medical field, ultrasonic waves are used for
diagnosis and treatment.
 To crush small stones in the kidneys.
 In physiotherapy
 To take images of internal organs such as kidney,
liver, gall bladder and uterus.
Ultrasonic waves that travel through body tissues strike
Fig. 1.25
and reflect at areas of varying density in the tissues.
These waves are converted into electric signals to form
an image of the organ (Fig. 1.25). This technique is ultra
sonography.
 For cleaning spiral tubes, irregular machine parts,
electronic components etc. (Fig. 1.26).
Fig. 1.26
 In the device called SONAR which is used to find
the distance to the underwater objects (Fig. 1.27).
If an ultrasonic wave emitted by a transmitter,
installed on a ship on the surface of the water,
strikes a rock at the bottom of the sea and
returns after 0.2 s, what is the distance from
Fig. 1.27 the ship to the rock? Consider the speed of
ultrasonic waves in seawater as 1522 m/s.

24
 Sound Waves

Can waves cause any harm?

You have understood the characteristics and uses of different types of

waves. Any type of wave above a certain intensity can cause harmful
effects. There are also destructive waves.
Seismic Waves and Tsunami
A building that was destroyed by the earthquake is seen in figure 1.28.
Earthquakes often cause disaster.
Seismic waves are those which travel through the Earth's
crust as a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
massive explosions. Seismology is the study of seismic
waves. The intensity of earthquakes is determined by the
Richter scale.
Earthquakes that occur at the bottom of oceans or along Fig. 1.28
coastal areas can sometimes trigger tsunami waves
(Fig. 1.29). Tsunami is a series of gigantic ocean waves
caused by the displacement of large volumes of water in
the sea.
• What measures can be taken to safeguard against
tsunamis? Discuss and make notes.
Follow the instructions given by the official tsunami
warning centres.
Fig. 1.29

1. Which of the following statements is correct?

a) Sound and light are transverse waves.
b) Sound and light are longitudinal waves.
c) Sound is a longitudinal wave and light is a transverse wave.
d) Sound is a transverse wave and light is a longitudinal wave.
2. The upper limit of frequency of sound that a bat can hear is 120 kHz. If so, what
is the maximum wavelength of sound it can hear? Consider the speed of sound as
350 m/s.
25
Physics Standard - X

3. A graphic illustration of two waves

travelling at a speed of 3.2 m/s is
given. Fig. 1.30 (a)

a) Find out the frequency, period,

and wavelength of each wave.
Fig. 1.30 (b)

4. Which of the following frequency can be heard by humans?

a) 5 Hz b) 2000 Hz c) 200 kHz d) 50 kHz
5. A wave has a frequency of 2 kHz and a wavelength of 35 cm. How far does this
wave travel in 0.5 s?
6. What is the frequency of a wave that produces 50 crests and 50 troughs in 0.5 s?

7. Which of the following is

different regarding the waves
given in the figures 1.31 (a) Fig. 1.31 (a)
and 1.31 (b)?
(frequency, amplitude,
wavelength)
Fig. 1.31 (b)
8. The distance between two adjacent troughs of a transverse wave is 2 m. Find the
frequency if its speed is 20 m/s.
9. When sound passes through a medium, …………….. travels.
(the particles in the medium / the wave / the source of sound / the medium)
10. Two pith balls are suspended near the two prongs of a tuning fork fixed on a table
so as to touch the prongs. A person plays a piano sitting near this system.
a) In this case the pith balls move slightly. What is the reason?
(forced vibration / echo)
b) While playing certain notes on the piano, the pith balls are thrown to a maximum
distance. Which phenomenon is responsible for this?
(reverberation / resonance)

1. Plan an activity that illustrates the resonance of sound.

2. Prepare and present a seminar paper on the topic : 'Ultrasonic Waves and their
Applications.'
26
 2 Lenses
How far away How does a
are the stars! They telescope make
can be seen very distant objects
close, when viewed appear so
through this! distinct and
close?

Have you ever had such doubts?

Observe figure 2.1. Have you noticed older people
using reading lens to make letters appear larger?
Where else are lenses used? Write them down.
• Toys
• Spectacles
• Door lens (lens fixed on the door to view the
outside)
• Fig. 2.1
What makes these lenses different from a sheet of glass? Let's
examine.
Physics Standard - X

• Allow sunlight to fall on a paper through a thin sheet of glass.

What is observed?

Fig. 2.2 (a) Fig. 2.2 (b)

• Vary the distance between the paper and the glass sheet. What do
you observe?
It is seen that the size of the illuminated part does not change whether
the glass sheet is near or far from the paper. Do the same activity
using reading lens.
• What is your observation?
Note that when the lens is held at a specific distance from the paper,
the size of the illuminated area is greatly reduced and the intensity
of light at that area increases. Hold the lens at that point for a longer
time. Can’t you see the paper smouldering and catching fire?

What feature does the lens have that the glass sheet
doesn’t?

Convex lens and Concave lens

Observe the lens used in the previous activity and note down its
characteristics.
• Thicker in the middle
• Shows the objects magnified
convex lens •
Fig.2.3 The lens you are now familiar with is called convex lens. It is
understood that such lenses can converge light rays.

28
 Lenses

Observe another type of lens (Fig 2.4). What are its features?
• Thinner in the middle
•
Try to burn a piece of paper with such lenses. Is it possible?
It is understood that this type of lenses cannot converge light rays.
Such lenses are called concave lenses.
concave lens
List the characteristics of concave lenses and convex lenses in the Fig.2.4
table.
Convex lens Concave lens
• Thicker in the middle •
• Thicker at the edges
 
Table 2.1

Observe the letters through each lens and move the lens to one side.
What is the observation?
• When a convex lens is used, the letters appear to move in the
opposite direction.
•
This activity can be used as a method to distinguish
between convex and concave lenses.
Observe figures 2.5 (a) and 2.5 (b).

Each lens has two surfaces. When light passes through

Fig. 2.5 (a)
them, refraction occurs. That means a lens has two
refracting surfaces.
• Refracting surfaces of a lens are parts of
(spheres / circles)

A lens is a transparent medium in which each

refracting surface is part of the spheres.
Fig. 2.5 (b)

29
Physics Standard - X

Terms Related to Lenses

 Optic centre : The midpoint of a lens is the optic
centre (O).
 Centres of curvature : Each refracting surface of a
lens is part of a sphere. The centres of such spheres
are the centres of curvature.
 Optic axis : The optic axis is the imaginary line
Fig. 2.6 (a)
passing through the centres of curvature and the
optic centre of a lens.
 Aperture : The area of the lens through which light
passes is called aperture. In optical instruments
such as cameras and microscopes, the aperture can
be varied by using the stop.
Fig. 2.6 (b)

Observe figures 2.6 (a) and 2.6 (b).

• Which figure represents convex lens? And which one represents
concave lens?
• What do C1 and C2 indicate?
• Which refers to the optic centre? (C1, O, C2)
• Which represents the optic axis?
 Principal focus
Let's do an activity to find the principal foci of lenses.
Materials : A box about 50 cm length,
30 cm width and 20 cm height, transparent
on one side (a small hole should be made
on the two opposite sides of the box and the
holes should be sealed with a transparent
sheet), laser torch (high beam type), incense
Fig 2.7 stick, match box, convex lens, concave lens
and lens stand.
After fixing the convex lens on the stand
inside the box, fill the box with smoke.
Allow light rays from the laser torch to pass
Fig 2.8 through the hole and allow it to fall on the
lens as shown in the figure.
30
 Lenses

• What do you observe?

• Depict the path of light
Haven't you noticed the change in the direction of light rays parallel
to the optic axis of the convex lens as they pass through the lens? (It
is to be noted that all light rays coming from a source or reflected
from an object may not be parallel. But here we are considering only
parallel rays). Haven't you seen light rays converge to a point on
the other side of the lens after refraction? This point is the principal
focus of the convex lens.

Light rays near and parallel to the optic axis incident on a convex lens,
after refraction converge at a point on the optic axis on the other side of
the lens. This point is the principal focus (F) of a convex lens.

Repeat the experiment shown in figure 2.7 by passing the light through
the opposite hole. Didn't the light rays converge in this case too?
So such lenses have two principal foci,
one on each side of the lens. These foci are
equidistant from the optic centre.
The principal focus of a convex lens is
considered real because light rays passing
parallel to the optic axis of a convex lens pass
through the principal focus, after refraction.
Fig 2.9
To find the approximate focal length of a
convex lens, the distant object method can be used. Project the image
of a distant tree or a building onto a screen using a convex lens.
Measure the distance between the lens and the image using a scale.
This distance is the approximate focal length of that lens.
Focal length
The focal length (f) is the distance from the
optic centre of the lens to the principal focus.

Try smoke box experiment using a concave lens.

Fig. 2.10 (a)

31
Physics Standard - X

Draw the path of the ray of light. Compare the figure drawn with
figure 2.10 (a).

Haven't you noticed the change in direction of

the light rays passing parallel to the optic axis
through the concave lens? Here the refracted rays
appear to diverge from a point [Fig.2.10 (b)].
This point is the principal focus of the concave
Fig. 2.10 (b) lens. A concave lens diverges the rays of light.

Light rays, near and parallel to the optic axis incident on a concave lens,
after refraction appear to diverge from a point on the optic axis on the same
side of the lens. This point is the principal focus of a concave lens (F).

Repeat the experiment by passing light through the other side of the
concave lens. Haven't you understood that the concave lens also has
two principal foci?
• Do refracted rays pass through the principal focus of a concave
lens?
• If so, is the principal focus of a concave lens considered virtual or
real?
Image Formation by Lenses
Project the image of a window onto a screen using a convex lens as
shown in figure 2.11.

• Try to form an image using a concave lens.

Is it possible? Write down the results of the
observation in the science diary.
• Which lens was used to form an image on the
screen?

Fig. 2.11

Images that can be projected on a screen are real

images.

32
 Lenses

• Write down examples for real images.

 Image that is captured on a camera  Image that is formed on a cinema screen


Image Formation by a Convex Lens

Arrange a light source, the convex lens
with pre-determined focal length, the
lens stand and the screen as shown in the
figure. Measure and mark F and 2F on the
experiment table on both sides of the lens.
Here we have to get the image of the object Fig. 2.12
on the screen. Hence the light source is
used as the object in this experiment.

First place the object (light source) beyond 2F and adjust the position of
the screen to get a clear image. Observe the features of the image and
record them in the table given below.
Record the positions and properties of the image in the table by placing the
object at various positions in table 2.2.

Position Characteristics
Position of the object
of the image of the image
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished, inverted, real
At 2F
Between F and 2F
At F At infinity Magnified, inverted, real
(Far away)
Between F and lens
Table 2.2
Ray Diagram of the Image Formation by a Convex Lens
Let’s draw the path of light rays from an object placed in front of a convex lens as
they pass through the lens.
Observe figure 2.13 (a) (b) and (c). Write
down in table 2.3 the details of the path of
light rays passing through the convex lens
through different paths from point A. Fig. 2.13 (a)
33
Physics Standard - X

A ray of light from a point Passes through the

which is parallel to the optic principal focus on
axis incident on a convex the other side.
lens
Fig. 2.13 (b) A ray of light passing
through the optic centre
A ray of light after passing
through the focus on the
same side of the object
Fig. 2.13 (c) incident on the lens
Table 2.3
A ray of light coming from a point on an object and passing through any
point of the lens follows the laws of refraction.
After observing figure 2.14, haven’t you
seen that the light rays which have taken
different paths pass through a single
point?
Hence the image of A is formed at
Fig. 2.14
D. Similarly, the image of any point
on the object is formed at the point of
convergence of refracted light rays originating from the corresponding
points.
If a screen is placed at the point of convergence of the refracted rays, the
image is formed there.
Complete the ray diagram of the formation of image when the object is
placed at different positions. Find the position and characteristics of the
images.
Object beyond 2F

M
Fig. 2.15
• Position of the image : Between F and 2F on the other side
• Characteristics of the image :
34
 Inverted  Diminished  Real
 Lenses

Object at 2F

Fig. 2.16

• Position of the image :

• Characteristics of the image : PhET→ Geometric
Optics-Basics

Object Between F and 2F

• Position of the image:

• Characteristics of the image :
 Fig 2.17

Object at F
Draw the ray diagram of the image formation.
• Do refracted rays converge?
• What would be the characteristics of the image?
Compare it with the experiment done earlier.

Does a convex lens always form only real images?

Object between F and the Lens

Observe the ray diagram of the image
formation when the object is placed between
the focus (F) and the optic centre (O).
• Position of the image : On the same side
of the object
Fig. 2.18
• Characteristics of the image :
 Erect  Virtual 

35
Physics Standard - X

• Here, do the light rays coming from the object and passing through
the lens pass through a common point?
Aren't the light rays coming from the object diverging? When we
observe this object from the other side of the lens, we can see the
magnified image of the object.
Thus the image that cannot be obtained on the screen, but can only
be seen, is virtual.
Images that cannot be captured on a screen, but can only be seen are
virtual images.

Image Formation by a Concave Lens

We have seen how to form an image using a convex lens. Similarly
try to form an image using a concave lens. What is your finding?
Ray diagram of image formation by concave lens
Complete table 2.4 by observing the change in the path of light as it
passes through a concave lens.

Rays of light parallel to

the optic axis incident
on a concave lens (after
Fig. 2.19 (a)
refraction)

Light rays passing

through the lens directed
towards the principal
focus on the other side
(after refraction)
Fig. 2.19 (b)

Rays of light passing

through the optic centre
Table 2.4

Fig. 2.19 (c)

36
 Lenses

Object between F and 2F

• Position of the image :
• Characteristics of the image :
Object between F and Lens
An object is placed between F and the lens.
Draw the ray diagram of the image formation Fig. 2.20
in the science diary.
• Position of the image :
• Characteristics of the image:
Complete the given table based on the image formation by a concave lens.
Characteristics of the image
Position
Position of the object of the Real/ Inverted/ Magnified/
image Virtual Erect diminished

Between F and 2F
Between F and the Lens
Table 2.5
On analysing table 2.5, it is understood that the image formed by a concave
lens is virtual. What could be the reason for this?
As concave lens diverges light rays, the image it forms is always virtual.
The position of the image is always between F and the lens on the same
side of the object.

Can we calculate how far the image from the lens will
be, if an object is placed at a given distance?

Lens Equation
With regard to the image
formation by a lens, we
consider the focal length, the
distance from the optic centre
Fig. 2.21
to the object and to the image.
Observe these distances marked in the figure.
37
Physics Standard - X

• Which letter indicates the distance to the object (OB) in the figure?
• Which distance does the letter v represent in the figure?
• Which distance does the letter f stand for?
As the lenses and positions of the object change, appropriate signs
for the measurements related to the lens should be considered.
Cartesian sign convention
While solving mathematical problems related to lens, appropriate
signs should be given for the measurements. These rules can be used
in lenses in general.
 All distances should be measured from the optic centre of the
lens.
 Distances measured in the same direction as the incident ray
should be considered positive and those in the opposite direction
should be considered negative.
 Distances measured above the optic axis should be considered
positive and those below should be considered negative.
Cartesian sign convention can be used to solve mathematical
problems using general equations in different contexts. There is no
need to consider whether the object is on the left or right side of the
lens. Observe figures 2.22 (a) and (b) and complete table 2.6 based
on Cartesian sign convention.

incident ray

ho 1 cm u 25 cm f 20 cm
2F F O
F 2F
hi 4 cm
v 100 cm
Fig 2.22 (a)

incident ray

u 25 cm ho 1 cm
2F F f 20 cm O
F 2F
hi 4 cm

v 100 cm
Fig 2.22 (b)

38
 Lenses

Fig. 2.22 (a) Fig. 2.22 (b)

Measurements Positive/ Positive/
negative Reason negative Reason
negative measured from the negative measured from the
u (-25 cm) optic centre in the (-25 cm) optic centre in the
opposite direction opposite direction of the
of the incident ray incident ray
v
f
ho
hi
Table 2.6
The position of the image formed by a lens is determined by the position of the
object and the focal length of the lens. The relation between them is made clear
by the lens equation.
11 1
f v u
f = focal length; u = distance to the object; v = distance to the image
This equation can also be written as
f  uuv
v
• Observe the distance to the object and the distance to the image depicted in
the figure.

Fig 2.23

a) Write down the measurements using the sign conventions.

b) Calculate the focal length of the lens.
a) Distance to the object, u = − 90 cm (measurement in a direction opposite to that
of the incident ray)
Distance to the image, v = + 30 cm (measurement in the same direction as that
of the incident ray)
b) f = uuv −v
 90 cm # + 30 cm  2700 cm2
f =  90 cm  + 30 cm
 
120 cm
  22.5 cm

Since the focal length is positive, it can be understood that the principal focus is
39
real and the lens used here is convex.
Physics Standard - X

Is it possible to find how many times the size of the

image is to the size of the object?
Magnification
Magnification refers to how many times the height of the object is to
the height of the image.
Magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the
object. It has no unit.

Height of the image h

Magnification
= = hoi
Height of the object

OR
Distance to the image
Magnification = = vu
Distance to the object
hi v
m = ho = u

According to Cartesian sign convention, it can be understood that the

image is erect if magnification is positive and the image is inverted if
magnification is negative.
Calculate the magnification using the measurements in the figure
2.23 and write down the characteristics.
m = hhi or m = vu
o
u = − 90 cm ho = +1.8 cm v = + 30 cm hi = − 0.6 cm
h
m = h i =  01..68 = − 13
o
m = vu =  30
90 = 3
−1

Since magnification is less than one, it can be understood that the

image is smaller than the object.
The negative sign of the magnification indicates that the image is
inverted and real.
Complete table 2.7 by considering the relation of
magnification with the nature of the image.
40
 Lenses

Nature of the image Sign of magnification

(positive / negative)
Erect
Inverted
Real
Virtual
Table 2.7

An object of height 2 cm is placed on the optic axis at a

distance of 12 cm from the optic centre of a convex lens.
Focal length of the convex lens is 6 cm.
a) Draw a ray diagram based on the given measurements
and write down the characteristics of the image.
b) Calculate the magnification by measuring the height of
the image.
A concave lens has a focal length of 20 cm. An object of
height 2 cm is placed at a distance 30 cm from the lens on
the optic axis.
a) Calculate the distance from the lens to the image.
b) How much will the magnification be? What are the
characteristics of the image?

Which are the instruments where lenses are

used?
The position, nature and size of the images formed by different types
of lenses have been found out. Some of the instruments that make
use of these are :
Spectacles, simple microscope, compound microscope
Dr.Brook Pettre
and telescope. MBBS, DO M.S-Ophthalmology
Have you noticed the prescriptions given by doctors to Rx SPH CYL AXIS VN PD
buy spectacles? Can you identify what is written on it? R.E. +2.00 +0.50 130 6/6 -
• What does +2.00 refer to? L.E. +2.00 +0.50 140 6/6 -

It refers to the power of the lens in the spectacles. Remarks : Bptre

Fig 2.24

41
Physics Standard - X

Power of Lens
Power is a term related to the focal length of the lens. The power of
a lens is its ability to converge or diverge light rays incident on it.

Power is the reciprocal of focal length. The lower the focal length, the higher
the power of the lens. Power P = 1f

The SI unit of power is dioptre. It is denoted by the letter D.

The power of a lens with a focal length of one metre is one dioptre (1 D).

What is the power of a concave lens of focal length 25 cm?

Focal length of concave lens = − 25 cm

Since the focal length is considered in metre while calculating the
power of the lens in the SI unit,

f = = − 0.25 m

Power P = 1f

If the power is negative, it is identified as concave lens.

• If it is a convex lens, what will be the sign of the power?
• What type of lens is in the doctor's prescription (Fig. 2.24)?
Let's take a look at some of the devices that use lenses.
Compound Microscope
What is the use of a compound microscope?
Have you ever wondered how they magnify objects?
The two main parts of a compound microscope are objective and
eyepiece.
Fig. 2.25 (a)

42
 Lenses

Objective :
An objective is a lens placed close to the object
to be observed.
Eyepiece :
Eyepiece is the lens through which the image Magnification is not according to the scale
formed by the objective lens is observed. The Fig. 2.25 (b)
focal length of the eyepiece is greater than that of the objective.
Observe figure 2.25 (b) and complete table 2.8 identifying the
characteristics of lenses used in compound microscope.

When objective and

eyepiece lenses are Characteristics
Convex lens / compared of the image
Lens
Concave lens formed
focal length
more / less
Objective
Eyepiece
Table 2.8

• Where should the object to be observed be kept with reference to the

objective?
(beyond 2Fo / between Fo and 2Fo)
• What is the position of the image formed by the objective?
• What are the characteristics of this image?
• What would be the characteristics of the image formed by the eye piece?
 Erect 
The object should be placed between Fo and 2Fo of the objective. A large,
real, inverted image of the object is formed beyond 2Fo of the objective. This
acts as the object for the eyepiece. Its position is between the optic centre and
Fe of the eyepiece. A large and virtual image of this can be seen through the
eyepiece.
• Increasing the focal length of the objective lens will not be beneficial in the
compound microscope. What is the reason?
If the focal length of the objective lens is longer, the size of image will be
smaller. That means the magnification will be lesser. So the objective lens
should have a shorter focal length. 43
Physics Standard - X

A microscope is usually provided with a range of objective lenses to

obtain suitable magnification while observing micro objects.
Refracting Telescope
Telescopes are instruments to see distant objects clearly. The
invention of the telescope brought about a great change in the study
of the universe. There are different types of telescopes that make use
of reflection and refraction of light. Let us see the functioning of a
telescope whose working is based on the refraction of light.

Fig 2.26 (a) Fig 2.26 (b)

Observe figures 2.26 (a) and 2.26 (b).

The main parts of the telescope are objective and eyepiece. Identify
their characteristics and complete the table given below.

When objective
and eyepiece lenses are
Characteristics
compared
of the image
Lens formed
focal length aperture
more / less more / less

Objective

Eyepiece
Table 2.9

Let's see how the image is formed in the telescope.

• Where is the position of the object?
(far away / nearby)

44
 Lenses

• Focal length of the objective is

(lesser / greater)
• What are the characteristics of the image formed by the objective?
(small and real / large and virtual)
• Which of the lenses use this image as its object?
(objective / eyepiece)
• Through which lens is the image viewed?
(objective / eyepiece)
• The image we see through the eyepiece is
(real / virtual)
In a telescope, the objective forms a small, real and inverted image
of a distant object.
It is the image formed by the objective that we observe through the
eyepiece. Since the position of this image is between the focus of the
eyepiece and the optic centre, we can see the virtual image formed
by the eyepiece.
It is clear that while making a telescope, the length of the telescope
tube should be taken by considering the focal length of the objective
lens and the focal length of the eyepiece lens.
Now haven't you understood how distant objects can be seen clearly
in a telescope?
Let's make a telescope.
Making a Telescope
Materials required
Approximately 1 m long PVC pipe (having a
diameter suitable enough to fix the lens), convex
lens (of diameter 5 cm /10 cm and focal length
50 cm /100 cm), plastic bottle, eyepiece used for
watch repair. Fig. 2.27
Things to be considered while choosing lenses :
 The focal length and aperture of the objective lens should be greater.
 The focal length and aperture of the eyepiece lens should be lesser.
 Use high quality lenses.

45
Physics Standard - X

Method of Construction
Fix a convex lens of approximately 10 cm diameter and focal length 100 cm at
one end of a PVC pipe having approximately 10 cm diameter. Cut the bottom of
a plastic bottle of two litre and insert it into the other end of the pipe. Insert and
fix the eyepiece (used for watch repair) at the mouth of the plastic bottle. Distant
objects can be observed by adjusting the distance between the eye piece and the
objective by pushing or pulling the plastic bottle.

Special Attention
Do not look at the sun through a telescope. It is preferable to fix a telescope
on a stand while observing other celestial bodies.

• Why is it said not to look at the sun through a telescope? Search

and find out.

1. The focal length of a convex lens is 20 cm. An object of height 3 cm is located at a

distance of 60 cm from its optic centre on the optic axis.
a) Calculate the height of the image.
b) What are the characteristics of the image obtained?
2. The focal length of a lens is 20 cm.
a) An object is placed 30 cm away from the lens. Calculate how far the screen
should be placed to get a clear image.
b) If the height of the object is 1.2 cm, what will be the height of the image
appearing on the screen?
3. The focal length of a convex lens is 100 mm. An object of height 15 mm is located
60 mm from the optic centre on its optic axis.
a) Draw its ray diagram on a graph paper and find the position and height of
the image.
b) Calculate the magnification if the distance to the object is 20 mm.

46
 Lenses

4. Four statements are given regarding the image formed by a concave lens. Find and
choose the correct answer.
i. It will be diminished and inverted
ii. It will be diminished and virtual
iii. It will be magnified and virtual
iv. It will be diminished and erect
a) Only the second statement is true
b) Only the first statement is true
c) Second statement and fourth statements are true
d) Only the third statement is true
5. A concave lens has a focal length of 50 cm. What will be its power?
a) +2 D b) +0.5 D c) −2 D d) −0.5 D
6. Find the most appropriate statement related to a telescope.
a) The objective lens has a shorter focal length and the eyepiece lens has a
longer focal length.
b) The objective lens has a longer focal length and the eyepiece has a shorter
focal length.
c) Objective lens and eyepiece lens are concave lenses.
d) Objective lens will be concave lens and eyepiece lens will be convex lens.
7. When an object is placed in front of a lens, the image formed is inverted.
a) Is it real or virtual?
b) What will you do if you want another image of this obtained image to be
real, erect and of the same size?
8. When an object is placed at the principal focus of a lens, an image that is erect and
diminished is obtained.
a) What kind of lens is this?
b) Draw the ray diagram of the image formation.

47
Physics Standard - X

9. The image (IM) obtained when an object is placed in front of a lens is depicted.
P

I
2F F O F 2F

M
Q
Fig. 2.28

a) If PQ is a lens in the figure, what type of lens does PQ represent?

b) Complete the ray diagram and find the position of the object.
c) The height of the object is ........ than the height of the image (greater / lesser).
10. Match the items in the columns A, B and C appropriately.

A B C
Magnification 1 hi negative
f

Power of lens Inverted image v

u
Real image hi hi positive
ho

Erect image dioptre

Table 2.10

1. You may know people who use spectacles for various purposes. Collect, tabulate
and analyse information regarding the type of lens used in different types of
spectacles, the power of lens, age of the users and the problems faced by them.
2. Collect a transparent polythene bag. Fill it with water and tie to get it almost in the
shape of a sphere. Use it as a convex lens to form various sized images of a burning
candle.

48
 3 The World of
Colours and Vision
We see all these flowers
in the same light. Still
why do they appear in
different colours?
Wow!
this garden
is so
beautiful!

Have you ever thought about the reason why flowers appear in
different colours, though they are all illuminated by the same light?
Refraction through a Glass Prism
Pass a beam of light from a laser torch through a prism
as shown in figure 3.1.
Have you observed the deviation in the path of light?
• What is the reason for this deviation?
• Identify the faces on which the light ray undergoes
deviation. Depict the path of light ray in your science Base
Fig.3.1
diary.
• Towards which part of the prism does the light ray deviate when
it enters into the prism from air?
• What about when the light ray passes from the prism into air?
 Physics Standard - X

When light ray enters and leaves a prism, it deviates towards the
base of the prism due to refraction.

Dispersion of Light
Let's pass sunlight through a prism instead of laser light.
Using a plane mirror, reflect sunlight onto a white wall. Place a
narrow slit in the path of the sunlight so that only a thin beam of light
passes through it.

Now you can see a white patch of light

on the wall.
Arrange a prism in the path of this beam
so that it falls obliquely on one of its
sides (Fig. 3.2).
ht screen
lig
sun • What do you observe?
Fig. 3.2 • Instead of white light, don’t you see
different colours as in a rainbow on
the wall?
You have seen that sunlight splits into different colours. Record in the
science diary the colours in the decreasing order of deviation. Can’t you see
the component colours in the order violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange
and red (VIBGYOR)? This orderly arrangement of the component colours in
white light is called the spectrum.

Fig. 3.3

Why does sunlight split into its component colours

when it passes through a prism?

50
 The World of Colours and Vision

Observe the splitting of sunlight into its component colours when it

passes through a prism as shown in figure 3.4.
• What could be the reason for the deviation
of the light ray?
When light ray passes through a prism, it
deviates at the two faces due to refraction.
• Is this deviation the same for all the colours?
Let's see how this is related to the wavelength
of different colours of light.
Compare the wavelengths of the colours given
in table 3.1. Fig. 3.4

Approximate
Colour wavelength
(nanometre) nm
Violet (V) 380 - 440
Indigo (I) 440 - 460
Blue (B) 460 - 500
Green (G) 500 - 570
Yellow (Y) 570 - 590
Orange (O) 590 - 620
Fig. 3.5
Red (R) 620 - 750
Table 3.1

• Which colour of light has the shortest wavelength? Which has the longest?
• Which colour deviates the most as it passes through a prism? Which has the
least deviation?
• What is the reason for the changes observed in the deviation of colours?
Compare the deviation of colours with their wavelengths.
• How does the deviation of colours change with the increase in the wavelength
as it passes through a prism?
• What are the factors on which the deviation of a ray of light depend?
 Refractive index of the medium
 Wavelength of the colour of light

51
 Physics Standard - X

When light passes through a glass prism, it undergoes refraction

at the two refracting faces of the prism. The extent of deviation
depends on the wavelength of light. Red deviates the least because
of its longer wavelength. What about violet, which has a shorter
wavelength? What about the other colours? The wavelength of other
colours lie in between red and violet. Hence their deviation occurs
proportionally and is arranged between red and violet.
Place a small plane mirror slightly inclined in a tray
of water as shown in the figure. Adjust its position
so as to reflect sunlight onto a screen. What do you
observe? Explain based on the dispersion of light.
From the experiments we have done, we can
understand that sunlight is composed of different
colours.
Fig. 3.6

Light composed of different colours is a composite light.

Dispersion of light is the phenomenon of splitting up of a composite

light into its component colours.

Is the rainbow seen in the sky formed by dispersion?

Rainbow
Have you observed a rainbow? Can we create a rainbow artificially?
Spray fine droplets of water into the air when
the sun is shining behind you. What do you
observe? Haven’t you created an artificial
rainbow? Compare the spectrum obtained now
with the colours of the natural rainbow. Identify
the colours you have observed. Note them down
in the science diary. Now spray fine droplets of
water towards the sun. A rainbow is not formed,
is it? A rainbow is always formed in a direction
Fig. 3.7 opposite to the sun. Where will the Sun be when
a rainbow is seen in the east? What about the
position of the Sun when a rainbow is seen in the
52 west?
 The World of Colours and Vision

How is a rainbow formed in the sky?

Observe figure 3.8.

• When passing through water droplets where do light rays undergo
refraction?
• What happens to the refracted light rays inside the
water droplets?
A ray of sunlight passing through a water droplet
undergoes refraction twice and internal reflection
once. This is a natural phenomenon. A rainbow is
formed as a result of the combined effect of refraction,
dispersion, and internal reflection.
Fig. 3.8
Recombination of Colours of Light
We get dispersed light from the prism in the
experiment as shown in figure 3.2. In the path
of the dispersed light arrange an identical
prism as shown in figure 3.9.
• What kind of light is obtained on the wall?
(coloured light / white light)
Fig. 3.9
• What could be the reason for this?
The rays of different colours from the first prism undergo a deviation
in the opposite direction by the second prism. This results in the
recombination of colours to produce white light on the wall.

Are there any other components in sunlight

besides visible light?

Electromagnetic Spectrum
We feel hot when sunlight falls on our body. Sunlight is beneficial
to our body. But do you know that excessive exposure to sunlight is
harmful? What could be the reason for this?

53
 Physics Standard - X

Sunlight contains infrared and ultraviolet radiations in addition to visible

light. The infrared radiation in the sunlight is the main reason for the heat
in the Sun’s rays.
In the activity shown in figure 2.2 (b) (burning paper using a lens), the
paper burns because of the convergence of infrared radiation on the paper.
Ultraviolet radiation helps to produce vitamin D in our body.
Solar radiations reach the earth's atmosphere after travelling an average
distance of 150 million kilometre through air and vacuum. The distance it
travels through the air is negligibly small compared to that in vacuum. Solar
radiations contain visible light, infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation,
etc. They do not require a medium to travel. They travel through vacuum
at a speed of 300,000 kilometre per second (3×108 m/s). Such radiations
are electromagnetic radiations.
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations is known as
the electromagnetic spectrum.

Observe figure 3.10. Name the radiations that constitute the

electromagnetic spectrum. List them in the ascending order of
wavelength.

Electromagnetic spectrum
Fig.3.10

Is white light produced only when all the colours of

visible light are combined?
54
 The World of Colours and Vision

Primary Colours and Secondary Colours

Arrange LEDs emitting red, green, and blue light at an angle of
120o on a circular disc. Pass the light from the LEDs through
a PVC pipe and project it onto a screen. Set the position of the
PVC pipe such that the red, green, and blue colours overlap.
PhET→ Colour
What do you observe? Based on your observations, complete Vision
table 3.2.

Resulting
Overlapping
colours on
colours
overlapping
Red + Green Yellow
Red + Blue
Fig. 3.11
Blue + Green yellow
Red + GreenTable 3.2
+ Blue
white
Table 3.2

In the region where red, green, and blue

colours of the same intensity are combined,
we see white light. The region where red and cyan
green combine appears as yellow, the part
magenta
where green and blue combine appears as
cyan, and the part where red and blue combine
appears as magenta. Fig. 3.12

Not only white light, but all other coloured lights can also be created using
red, green, and blue lights. Therefore, these colours are called the primary
colours of light. The coloured light formed by combining any two primary
colours is a secondary colour of light.

Find the secondary colours from figure 3.12 and write them down.
• What are the primary colours in yellow light?
• Which primary colour is not present in yellow light?
• Which colour will be obtained when yellow light is combined with
the primary colour that is not present in yellow?
55
 Physics Standard - X

• If we add a primary colour that is not a constituent of the

The yellow light from secondary colour, won’t we get white light?
a sodium vapour lamp
is not a composite When a secondary colour is combined with a primary
light. Hence, red and colour, we get white light. Such pairs of colours are called
green objects appear complementary colours. Complete table 3.3 with regard to
dark in this light. complementary colours.

Secondary Component Complementary

Colour Colours Colour
Colours and Dyes Yellow Red + Green Blue
Red, green and blue (RGB) are
Magenta
primary colours while considering Cyan
colours of light. But in the case of Table 3.3
dyes, cyan, magenta and yellow
(CMY) are taken as primary colours. Take a circular disc. Colour half of it with light
The combination of primary colours yellow colour and the other half with light blue
of the same intensity and primary colour using crayons. Rotate this circular disc very
dyes are given in the table. fast. What do you observe? Why? Why does the
circular disc appear white?
Colour
Colours of Light
obtained Persistence of Vision
Blue+ Green + Red White When a burning incense stick is whirled very fast, a
Blue + Green Cyan ring of fire can be seen. Why?
Green + Red Yellow This is due to the peculiarity of eye called the
Blue + Red Magenta persistence of vision.

Dye When we quickly remove an object from

Dyes our field of vision the visual experience
obtained
1
Cyan + Yellow + of that object persists for about 16 of a
Magenta Dark
second. This phenomenon is the persistence
Cyan + Yellow Green of vision.
Cyan + Magenta Blue
Yellow + Magenta Red
Find more examples of persistence of vision.

Primary dyes are used in

painting and printing. In
printing, black dye is also
used.
56
 The World of Colours and Vision

Newton's Colour Disc

The experiment (Fig. 3.9) clearly shows that white light is
obtained when the seven colours of sunlight are combined.
Newton’s colour disc is a circular disc painted with the
colours of sunlight in the same order and proportion. What
can be observed when it is rotated very fast? What is the
reason?
When Newton's colour disc is rotated very fast, before the Newton's colour disc
visual experience of any one colour vanishes from the eye, Fig. 3.13
the rays from the succeeding colours reach the eyes in quick
succession. Due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, the
combined effect of all the colours persists in our eyes and appears
almost white.
Explain the following based on the persistence of vision:
• When a torch or a burning stick is rotated very fast, a ring of fire
is seen.
•
Make some working models to demonstrate persistence of vision
and present them in the class.
Colour of Transparent Objects
Observe figure 3.14.
• How did the children view the flowers? This red
flower is so Red? Isn’t
• What is the colour of the filter in the beautiful! it a blue
spectacles they wore? flower?
Pass white light through the filters (through
transparent objects) given in figure 3.15 and
project it onto a white screen.

Fig. 3.14

Record the observations of each case in

table 3.4.

Fig. 3.15 57
 Physics Standard - X

Light falling on Colour of the Colour of light passing

the filter filter through the filter
Red Transmits red colour in the white light
White light Green
Blue
Table 3.4

• Now let us pass each of the primary colours and white light through
a yellow filter. What do you observe?
• Identify the components of white light transmitted through each
filter.
• What happens to the other colours that fall on the filter?
Here, in each case, the filters transmit only the colour of the filter
and its component colours from the white light, and block the other
colours.
Complete table 3.5 related to secondary colours.

Light falling
Filter Transmits / Does not transmit
on the filter
Red Transmits red
Green
Magenta Blue
Yellow Transmits red
White Transmits red and blue
Table 3.5

A filter of secondary colour transmits light of its own colour and its
component colours.

In a textile shop the colour of clothes are very different

from their colour seen in sunlight. What is the reason for
this difference?

Colour of opaque objects

We see an object in the colour of the light that is reflected from the
object to our eyes.

58
 The World of Colours and Vision

Then, which colours will be reflected when sunlight (white light) falls on
the objects given below? Complete table 3.6.

Fig. 3.16 Fig. 3.17

Object Reflected light

Blue car Blue
Green mango
White vessel
Red apple
Table 3.6
When sunlight falls on an opaque object, it reflects the colour of the object
as well as the colours associated with adjacent wavelengths. It should be
remembered that the colour of an object is not of a single wavelength.
Similarly, there may be slight differences in colour perception depending
on the light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) in the eyes of each individual.
What happens to all other colours?
The object absorbs all other colours.
Write down the results obtained by observing the given objects in green,
blue, and yellow lights and complete the table.

Objects Light Colour of the object seen

Red Red
Red flower Green Dark
Yellow Red
Red
Green leaf Green
Yellow
Red
Yellow flower Green
Yellow
Table 3.7
59
 Physics Standard - X

What are the inferences obtained on analysing the

The beautiful colours of table?
Peacock and Butterfly
• What colours do a green leaf reflect? And what
The beautiful colours of about a red flower?
peacock feathers and butterfly • Can a yellow flower reflect only the yellow
wings are primarily due to colour?
their microscopic structure
rather than pigments. This An opaque object of a secondary colour can reflect
is based on the arrangement light of its colour and its component colours.
of nanostructures called • In which colour will a surface appear if it reflects
photonic crystals in their
all colours of light falling on it? And what about a
feathers or wings. The various
light phenomena through surface that absorbs all colours?
nanostructures are responsible A surface that reflects all colours will appear white
for the fascinating and varied in white light. We know that a surface that absorbs
colours. all colours appears dark.

In the introductory picture, the same light falls on all the flowers in
the garden. But why does each appear in a different colour? Now
can’t it be explained? Sunlight is a composite light. It contains
different colours. When sunlight falls on objects, each object reflects
different colours according to its colour. Accordingly, objects are
seen in different colours.

Why does the sky usually appear blue?

Scattering of Light
The schematic diagram shows the scattering of light rays due to their collision
with the microscopic particles in the atmosphere (Fig.3.19).

Fig. 3.18 Fig. 3.19

60
 The World of Colours and Vision

• Which type of scattering does light undergo when it falls on

microscopic particles? (regular / irregular)
• Does this type of scattering cause sunlight to spread everywhere?
Discuss. The phenomenon of spreading of light in this manner is
scattering.

Scattering is the irregular and partial directional deviation of light

when it encounters particles in a medium.

Do all the component colours of white light

undergo scattering in the same manner?
Let's see. Take about three quarters of water
in a rectangular glass jar. Allow light rays
from a torch to pass through the water in the
jar onto the screen as shown in the figure.
Dissolve sodium thiosulphate in the water at Fig. 3.20
a concentration of two gram per litre. Add
one or two drops of hydrochloric acid to it. Observe the gradual
change of light in the solution and on the screen.
• Which colour spreads first in the solution?
• Write down in order the colour changes seen on the screen.
• Which is the last colour to appear on the screen?
When sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid react, colloidal
sulphur is precipitated. The size of the particles gradually increases.
Discuss the change in scattering in relation to wavelength as the size
of the sulphur particles gradually increases.
Violet, indigo and blue colours in sunlight, which have shorter
wavelengths, undergo more scattering when they encounter particles
in the atmosphere. The scattering of red, having a relatively longer
wavelength, is very low. Hence red can travel a longer distance
through the atmosphere.
The extent of scattering and the size of the particles are related to each
other. As the size of the particles increases, so does the scattering. If
the size of the particles is greater than the wavelength of light, the
scattering will be the same for all colours.

61
 Physics Standard - X

Tyndall Effect
Take water mixed with chalk powder in a beaker, as shown in
figure 3.21. Pass light from a torch through it.
• What do you observe?
Can you see the path of light?
Don’t you know that water mixed with chalk powder
is an example of a suspension? The path of light can
be clearly seen due to the scattering of light when it
passes through a suspension.
Similarly, in winter, paths of light through the gaps
of the branches of trees can be seen clearly due to
scattering.
Fig. 3.21
When light rays pass through a colloidal liquid
or suspension, they get scattered, causing tiny
particles to become illuminated, making the
path of light visible. This phenomenon is the
Tyndall effect.

The intensity of scattering depends on the size of the

particles in the colloid. As the size of the particles
increases, the intensity of scattering increases.

Fig. 3.22
Let's consider some other situations related to scattering.

Blue Colour of the Sky

Why does the sky appear blue?
Observe figure 3.23.
You know that light undergoes scattering when
it passes through the atmosphere.
• Which colour undergoes maximum scattering?
• Then, which colour of light spreads in the
atmosphere?

Fig. 3.23

62
 The World of Colours and Vision

When sunlight travels through the atmosphere to reach the Earth,

some of its components undergo scattering as it passes through the
air. Scattering occurs most for colours with shorter wavelengths such
as violet, indigo and blue. This scattered light spreads in the sky.
The resultant scattered light that reaches the observer's eye gives the
effect of the blue colour. So the sky appears blue.
Colour of Setting and Rising Sun
Why does the sun appear red or yellow or orange noon
during sunrise and sunset? Find out by analysing
figure 3.24.
evening morning
• The distance that the sun's rays travel through
the atmosphere to reach the Earth during sunrise
and sunset compared to other times is
Fig. 3.24
(more / less)
• Which colours undergo the least scattering at
these times?
• Which colour will be prominent in the light reaching the Earth?
If so, explain why the sun appears red, yellow, or orange during
sunrise and sunset.
Eye and Vision
We can see the beautiful sights in nature with the help of our eyes.

How do eyes enable vision?

Take a convex lens of focal length10 cm. Place a burning candle at

a distance of 20 cm away from the lens. Adjust the position of the
screen to get a clear image of the flame.
Observe and understand the arrangements used here
to form the image.
In the same way, an image of an object is formed in
our eyes.
Compare the image formation in the experiment with
the image formation in the eyes. Write down the
similar parts which contribute to the image formation
in both cases. Fig. 3.25
63
 Physics Standard - X

Now try changing the position of the object to a distance 30 cm from

the lens. Is a clear image formed on the screen now?
Replace the lens of focal length 10 cm with a lens of focal length
12 cm.
• What do you observe?
Isn’t a clear image of the object formed on the screen?
• What could be the reason for getting a clear image now?
Note that a clear image was obtained at the
same position when a lens with a suitable focal
length was used. When the object is placed at
different positions, to get a clear image at the
same position, the focal length of the lens must
be adjusted accordingly.
How are images of objects at different
distances formed on the retina?
This is made possible by changing the
Fig. 3.26 curvature of the lens in the eye with the help
of the ciliary muscles by changing the focal
length. When the ciliary muscles contract, the curvature of the lens
increases and the focal length decreases.
• What change will occur in the curvature of the lens while looking
at distant objects?
• What about the focal length when the curvature decreases?

The ability of the eye to change the curvature of the lens and adjust the
focal length so that the image of the object always falls on the retina,
regardless of the position of the object, is the power of accommodation of
the eye.

You have understood that due to the power of accommodation of the eye,
a clear image of objects at different distances is formed on the retina itself.

Will clear images be formed on the retina when objects

are kept very close to the eye?

64
 The World of Colours and Vision

Let's do an activity.
Try reading a book by holding it close to your nose.
• Can you see the letters clearly?
• What if you move the book away?
• At what distance from the eye can you see the letters clearly?
Measure this distance. This distance is the least distance of distinct
vision. The nearest point at which an object can be seen clearly is
the near point. For healthy eyes, the minimum distance for clear
vision is 25 cm.
• What is the maximum distance at which an object can be seen
clearly?
The farthest point at which an object can be seen clearly is the far
point. This distance is considered to be infinity.
• Will the near point and far point be alike for everyone?
Short sightedness / Myopia
Some people can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant
objects. This defect of the eye is short sightedness. The schematic
diagram shows the vision of a person with this defect.
• When an object is placed at a distant point
P as shown in the figure, where will the image
be formed?
• Can the object be seen clearly?
Fig. 3.27
• What if the object is at Q?
• Why can't such people see distant objects clearly?
For people with this defect, the far point will not be at infinity. It
will be at a certain distance from the eye.
• What could be the reason for short sightedness? Can you explain
the reason based on the size of the eyeball and the power of the
lens in the eye?
• The size of the eyeball is
(larger / smaller)
• The power of the lens is
(more / less)
Write down your conclusions in the science diary.
65
 Physics Standard - X

• Observe figure 3.28 to find out how

shortsightedness is rectified.
Short sightedness can be rectified using a
concave lens with suitable power.
Fig. 3.28

Long sightedness / Hypermetropia

Some people can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby
objects clearly. This defect of the eye is long-sightedness.
The figures showing the image formation in the eye of a person with
long sightedness are given [Fig.3.29 (a), (b)].
Didn’t you observe that the distance to the near point of a person
with long sightedness is different? By observing the image, you may
have understood that a clear image is not formed on the retina of a
person with long sightedness.
The near point of a person with long
sightedness will be more than 25 cm.
• Find the reason for this defect based on
(a) the size of the eyeball and the power of
the lens in the eye.
• The size of the eyeball is
(b)
(larger / smaller)
Fig. 3.29
• The power of the lens is
(more / less)
• How can long sightedness be rectified?
Find out from figure 3.30.
Long sightedness can be rectified using a
Fig. 3.30
convex lens with suitable power.

Presbyopia
What is the distance to the near point for a healthy eye?
For older people, the distance to the near point may be more than
25 cm. This is because the efficiency of the ciliary muscles decreases.
Such people have less power of accommodation. This is presbyopia.

66
 The World of Colours and Vision

Light Pollution
Although light is essential for the survival of life
on Earth, artificial light harms the natural habitat Photoperiodism
of the biosphere. Light pollution refers to the Certain categories of plants
creation of artificial light in excessive amounts bloom, bear fruit and shed
and intensity. Artificial light adversely affects the leaves at different times of the
reproduction and predation of many nocturnal year. A type of protein called
animals. phytochrome found in leaves
controls this biological clock.
Excess of artificial light adversely affects the The phytochrome controls this
natural activities, mental and physical health of mechanism by identifying the
humans. What are the other consequences of light amount of sunlight received in
pollution? Prepare a note on this to present in each season. This phenomenon
is photoperiodism. The fact that
class. the leaves on the branches of a
 Causes difficulty during night drive. tree growing near a street lamp
do not fall is an example of the
 Makes astronomical observations difficult
effect of light pollution on the
by obstructing the night sky. photoperiodism of plants.
 The light from multi-storeyed flats misleads
migratory birds.


1. Find the most appropriate answer.

Name the optical phenomena taking place when light rays pass through water droplets
to form a rainbow.
a) internal reflection b) refraction
c) refraction and internal reflection d) none of these
2. Which of the following pairs of colours can produce white light?
a) magenta, blue b) yellow, green c) red, green d) magenta, green
3. When a ray of white light enters obliquely and passes through a prism
i) does not undergo refraction ii) undergoes dispersion
iii) undergoes dispersion and deviation iv) not subjected to any of these
Choose the correct option.
a) ii & iii b) iv c) i & iv d) none of these 67
 Physics Standard - X

4. Fill in the blanks appropriately:

a) Cyan colour + ……… → white light b) Blue colour + . . . . . . . → white light
c) Magenta colour + green colour → ……….
d) Magenta colour + cyan colour + yellow colour → …………
5. Give scientific explanations based on scattering for the following:
a) Red light is used for emergency lamps.
b) The sky of the moon appears dark even during the day.
c) The deep sea appears blue.
6. Complete the path of a light ray falling on the glass prism
Fig. 3.31
(Fig. 3.31).
7. What are the radiations that are seen on either side of visible light in the
electromagnetic spectrum? Write one use of the radiation with a shorter wavelength
than visible light.
8. The near point of a person with hypermetropia is 40 cm.
a) Can this person read the letters in a book held 25 cm away?
b) Can this person see an object at infinity?
c) How can this defect of the eye be rectified?
9. Water is colourless, but it appears white in waterfalls. Why?
10. Based on the colour of illumination in the room, how can the coloured objects given
in the table be seen? Complete the table.
Light in the room
Colour of the
object Green Blue Red Magenta Cyan Yellow

Magenta
Green
Table 3.8

1. Prepare a note on the differences between colours of light and dyes.

2. Construct Newton's colour disc and operate.
68
 4 Magnetic Effect of
Electric Current
I will explain.
Dad, are For that you need
magnets to know certain
dangerous? things.

Have you also had similar doubts?

Let's do some activities. piece of wood

Take a pivoted magnetic needle. Bring a piece of wood

Fig. 4.1
near to it.
• What do you observe?
The magnetic needle (deflects / doesn’t deflect)
• Bring a bar magnet near the magnetic needle instead
of the wooden piece. What do you observe? Fig. 4.2
Physics Standard- X

• What is the reason?

Isn't the magnetic needle deflected because of the attraction and
repulsion between the two magnetic poles?
You have now understood that if another magnetic field is created
PhET→ Magnets near the magnetic needle, the magnetic needle will deflect.
and Compass
Don’t you know that there is a magnetic field around a magnet?
There are many magnetic field lines (flux lines) within a magnetic
field. These imaginary lines are used only to visualise the magnetic
field.
• Using a magnetic compass, draw the magnetic flux lines around a
bar magnet in your science diary.
Compare your drawing with the given figure.
• What is the direction of the magnetic flux lines surrounding
a magnet?
• What is its direction inside the magnet?

Can we create a magnetic field without

Fig. 4.3 using permanent magnets?
Current Carrying Conductor and Magnetic
Field
Make a circuit as shown in figure 4.4 using a conducting rod,
connecting wires, a 9 V cell and a bell switch. Bring it near a
Fig. 4.4
pivoted magnetic needle.
• When the bell switch is off, what is the direction of the
magnetic needle?
• Now turn on the bell switch. What do you observe?
• Why did the magnetic needle deflect now?
Now we can understand that a magnetic field is formed
around a current carrying conductor.

A magnetic field is formed around a current carrying conductor. This magnetic

field can exert a force on a magnetic needle. This is the magnetic effect of
electricity.

70
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

Does the direction of deflection of the magnetic

needle depend on the direction of the current?
Arrange a circuit as shown in figure 4.5 in such a way
that the conducting rod AB is above the pivoted magnetic
needle, parallel and close to it.
• What do you observe when the bell switch is turned on?
• In which direction does the north pole of the magnetic
needle deflect when viewed from above? Fig. 4.5
(clockwise direction / anticlockwise direction)
Haven’t we learned that a magnetic field can exert
a force on a magnetic needle? In the previous
experiment, the force necessary to move the
magnetic needle is created by the magnetic fields.
Isn’t this magnetic field due to the current passing
through the conductor? Clockwise Anticlockwise
direction direction
Reverse the direction of the current. Now isn’t
The clockwise direction is the direction
the magnetic needle deflecting in the opposite
in which the hands of a clock move.
direction? The anticlockwise direction is the
• What could be the reason? Write down your direction opposite to it.
inference.
Isn’t this because the direction of the magnetic field around the
conductor has reversed?
• In figure 4.5, which direction does the north
pole of the magnetic needle deflect, when
the current is from A to B?
(clockwise direction / anticlockwise Hans Christian Oersted
direction) Lifetime : 1777-1851
• What is the direction, if the current is from Birthplace : Denmark
B to A? Hans Christian Oersted was a Danish
(clockwise direction / anticlockwise scientist. In 1820 he conducted an experiment
direction) that demonstrated the relationship between
electricity and magnetism. These experiments
Repeat the experiment by placing the conductor laid the foundation for advancements in the
below the magnetic needle. field of electricity. The CGS unit of intensity
• When the current is from A to B, in which of the magnetic field is named oersted in
honour of him.
direction does the north pole of the magnetic
needle deflect?
71
(clockwise direction / anticlockwise direction)
Physics Standard- X

• What is the direction, if the current is from B to A?

(clockwise direction / anticlockwise direction)
Through this experiment, the scientist Hans Christian Oersted
discovered that a magnetic field is formed around a current carrying
conductor.

Can we find out the direction of the magnetic field

around a current carrying conductor?
Let's do an experiment to understand the relationship between the
direction of the current and the deflection of the magnetic needle.
Pass a copper wire through a cardboard and arrange it
perpendicular to the surface of the cardboard as shown
in the figure.
Connect the copper wire in series with a 9V battery and
a bell switch. Arrange small magnetic compasses in a
circular shape around the copper wire on the cardboard
as shown in the figure. Turn on the bell switch. Observe
Fig. 4.6 the direction of deflection of the north pole of the
magnetic needle.
• When the current is from A to B, in which direction does the north
pole of each magnetic needle deflect?
(clockwise / anticlockwise)
Observing the magnetic compasses mark the north poles of the
magnetic needles on the cardboard.
After removing the magnetic compasses from the cardboard, draw
the magnetic field lines and mark their direction.
• What is the direction of the magnetic field now?
(clockwise / anticlockwise)
Now, imagine holding the current carrying conductor AB with your
right hand so that your thumb points in the direction of the current.
• Compare the direction indicated by the tips of your fingers curling
around the conductor with the direction of the magnetic field.
Fig. 4.7
Aren’t they the same? Write down your findings in the science
diary.
72
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

This method of finding the direction of the magnetic

field around a current carrying conductor is known
as the right hand thumb rule.

Right Hand Thumb Rule

Imagine holding a conductor with your right
hand in such a way that the thumb points in
the direction of the electric current, the fingers
curled around the conductor will indicate the Ampere's Swimming Rule
direction of the magnetic field.
Ampere's swimming rule can also
be used to find the direction of the
Let's do another activity (Fig. 4.8). magnetic field around a current
Make two holes in a cardboard. Pass a copper wire carrying conductor. Imagine a
through these holes and make a loop. Arrange half person swimming in the direction
of the electric current, looking at
of the loop above the cardboard and half below as the magnetic needle, as shown in
shown in the figure. Place magnetic compasses near the figure. The north pole of the
the holes through which the copper wire passes. magnetic needle will deflect towards
Connect the loop of wire to a battery and a bell the left side of the person.
switch.
• Turn on the bell switch. What do you observe?
Find the direction of the magnetic field at points A
and B by observing the magnetic compasses.
• In which direction does the current flow in the
part of the coil that faces you?
(clockwise direction / anticlockwise direction) Fig. 4.8
• In this case, what is the direction of the flux lines?
(into the coil / out of the coil)
• What happens to the magnetic field if the bell switch is
turned off?

If the current in the coil is clockwise, the direction of the flux lines
will be inward into the coil. If the current is anticlockwise, the
direction of the flux lines will be outward.

73
Physics Standard- X

Haven't you noticed that there was no magnetic force when there
was no current in the circuit? From this, we can understand that the
magnetic force obtained from the coil is temporary (only when there
is current).

Is there a way to increase the magnetic strength

associated with a coil of wire?
Connect a coil of wire to a battery and a
bell switch. Hold the coil near one end of a
pivoted magnetic needle.
• Turn on the bell switch. What do you
observe?
Now increase the number of turns of the
coil and hold it near the magnetic needle.
Pass the same current through it.
Fig. 4.9
• What change do you observe in the
deflection of the magnetic needle?
• What change has occurred in the magnetic
strength?
Then, replace the 1.5 V cell with a 3 V
battery and pass the current.
• Now, has the deflection of the magnetic
needle increased or decreased?
• If so, write down the factors that affect
Fig. 4.10 the strength or intensity of the magnetic
field around a coil of wire.
When the number of turns of the conductor  Number of turns of the conductor
increased, both the magnetic strength and
the magnetic flux increased, but the flux 
produced by a single turn of the conductor
did not increase.

How can we utilize the magnetic effect of electric

current using coils of wire?
74
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

Solenoid
Take a PVC pipe of length 10 cm and diameter
4 cm (1.5 inch). Wind 2 m insulated copper wire of
gauge 26 around it. Remove the copper coil from the
PVC pipe without deforming the coil. What is the Fig. 4.11 (a)

shape of the coil now? Doesn't it look like a spring

[Fig.4.11(a)]? An insulated conductor wound in a
spiral shape is a solenoid. The centres of all the turns
lie on the same straight line.
Fig. 4.11 (b)
Similarly, prepare another solenoid of the same
length as the first one by winding 4 m of insulated
copper wire on the same PVC pipe [Fig. 4.11 (b)].
Arrange magnetic compasses around the first
solenoid. Connect the solenoid to a 9 V battery and
a bell switch (Fig. 4.12).
What do you observe when you turn on the bell
switch? Fig. 4.12

Repeat the experiment using the second solenoid.

• Now, what do you observe? (the deflection
increases / decreases)
• What is the reason?
• Increase the current through the solenoid. What
about the deflection of the magnetic compasses?
(increased / decreased) Fig. 4.13

• Place a piece of soft iron as the core of the solenoid.

Turn on the bell switch (Fig. 4.13). What do you
observe?
• Place a soft iron core with a larger area of cross
section. Turn on the bell switch. What do you
observe? (Fig. 4.14)
Observe the magnetic compasses at the ends of the Fig. 4.14
solenoid and determine the polarity at each end.

75
Physics Standard- X

• If the current flows in clockwise direction

at one end of the solenoid, what will be the
polarity at that end?
(south pole / north pole)
• What about the end in which the current is in
Current in the clockwise Current in the anticlockwise direction?
direction anticlockwise direction
Fig. 4.15
Imagine holding a solenoid with your right hand. When your fingers
curl around in the direction of the current, isn’t your thumb pointing
towards the north pole of that solenoid?
If you hold a current carrying solenoid with your right hand in
such a way that your four fingers curl the coils in the direction
of the current, the thumb points towards the north pole of the
solenoid.

The solenoid utilizes magnetic effect of electricity for practical

Fig. 4.16 purposes.
Based on the activities conducted so far, write down the factors that
influence the magnetic strength of a current carrying solenoid.
• The number of turns of the conductor per unit length.
•
PhET→ Magnets
and Electromagnets Electromagnets are devices that create magnetic field using
electricity.

Explain how a strong electromagnet can be made.

Are there similarities between the magnetic field

around a bar magnet and that around a current
carrying solenoid?
Sprinkle iron filings on an acrylic sheet placed over a bar magnet
and observe.
Compare it with figure 4.17 (a) and record your inferences in the
science diary.
Now sprinkle iron filings on an acrylic sheet placed on top of a
current carrying solenoid [Fig. 4.17 (b)].
• What do you observe?
76
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

• Haven’t you understood that the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
and a solenoid are alike?

Fig. 4.17 (a) Fig. 4.17 (b)

Complete table 4.1 by comparing the stability of magnetic field, polarity,

and the possibility of change in magnetic strength etc., of a bar magnet and
a current carrying solenoid.
Bar magnet Current carrying solenoid

Magnetism is permanent
Magnetic strength can be varied.
Polarity cannot be changed
Table 4.1
• If the strength of the electromagnets is significantly increased,
won’t they attract surrounding magnetic materials strongly?
Observe situations in (Fig. 4.18) where strong magnetic fields are
used.

Cranes using electromagnets Maglev train

(a) (b)

MRI scanner Electric motor

(c) (d)
Fig. 4.18 77
Physics Standard- X

Very strong electromagnetic fields are used in MRI (Magnetic

Resonance Imaging) scanning. We know that patients are asked to
remove all ornaments (made of metal) before undergoing an MRI
scan. Since the magnetic field of the MRI scanner is very strong,
magnetic materials are strongly attracted and may cause accidents.
The presence of other metals reduces the accuracy of the scanning
report. Now haven't you understood the indication of the image seen
at the beginning of this unit? If there is a magnetic shielding made of
iron sheets (as in an electric motor), the magnetic flux neither flows
out nor causes any accidents.
The figures of current carrying conducting loops are given
below. Which figures give the correct representation of
the magnetic polarity of the end you are facing?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 4.19
Observe figure 4.20.

(a) What is the magnetic polarity of end A?

(b) What is the magnetic polarity of end B?

Fig. 4.20

Electric Motor
Observe figure 4.21. This is a picture of an
electric motor. Don't you see many coils? You
know that a magnetic field is created when
electricity flows through the coils of wire.
How does the motor work when the switch is
turned on?
Let's see how forces are experienced by a
current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.

Fig. 4.21

78
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

Place a reasonably sized ring magnet on a table

with the north pole facing upwards. Place a thin
acrylic sheet on top of it. Take two copper wire
pieces of length 20 cm each (gauge 16) with
its insulation removed. Place them parallel to
each other on the sheet above the magnet. Place
another piece of copper wire (AB) across on top of
them as shown in the figure. Connect the positive
Fig. 4.22
terminal of a 12V battery through a bell switch to
one of the parallel copper wires. Connect the end
of the second copper wire to the negative terminal of the battery.
• What do you observe when the switch is turned on?
• Note in which direction the copper wire AB moved.
(towards Q / towards P)
• Repeat the experiment by reversing the polarity of the battery. In which
direction does the copper wire move?
(towards Q / towards P)
• Repeat the experiment by placing the south pole of the magnet facing
upwards. Repeat the experiment by reversing the polarity of the battery.
What do you observe?
• What do you observe if the polarity of the magnet and the direction of the
current are reversed together?
• What could be the reason for the conductor AB moving in the same
direction as before? Write it down in your science diary.

If the direction of the current or the magnetic field is reversed, the

direction of motion of the conductor will be reversed.

If the direction of the current and the magnetic field are reversed
together, the conductor will move in the same direction as before.

What are the factors that influence the direction of the force
experienced by the conductor? Magnetic field
 Direction of electric current
 Direction of
current
Direction of
force Fig. 4.23 (a)
79
Physics Standard- X

Magnetic field
• In this experiment, in which way are the directions of the
electric current and the magnetic field arranged?
(perpendicular to each other / parallel to each other)
Point the first finger of your left hand in the direction of the
magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of the
Direction of Direction of
force current electric current through the conductor.
• Now, isn't the force experienced by the conductor in the
Fig. 4.23 (b) direction indicated by the thumb?
Didn't you understand that the direction of the magnetic field, the
direction of the electric current, and the direction of motion of the
conductor are mutually perpendicular?
The direction of the force experienced by a current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field, the direction of the magnetic field and
the direction of the electric current are mutually perpendicular. This
relationship was discovered by John Ambrose Fleming. Fleming's
left hand rule is useful to find the direction of motion of a conductor
in devices that utilise the magnetic effect of electricity.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Hold the thumb, first finger, and second finger of your left hand perpendicular
to each other. If the First finger points in the direction of the magnetic
field and the seCond finger in the direction of the electric current, then the
thuMb will indicate the direction of the force experienced by the conductor.

While using Fleming's left hand rule to find the direction of motion
of a conductor, it will be easier to first confirm the direction of the
magnetic field with the first finger.

How does an electric motor work?

Let's do some activities to understand the parts and working of an

electric motor. For this, we need cardboard, insulated copper wire,
a 9 V battery, a ring magnet, two safety pins, and a conducting
wire. Wrap the insulated copper wire around a PVC pipe to make a
coil. Make sure that both ends of the coil extend slightly outwards.
Remove the insulation at both ends. Arrange the coil, ring magnet
80
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

and battery as shown in figure 4.24. Make sure that

the plane of the coil is parallel to the surface of the
cardboard.
• What do you observe when the switch is turned on?
• Why does the coil rotate very fast?
Discuss on the basis of Fleming's left hand rule and Fig. 4.24
write your inference in the science diary.

Motor Principle

A current carrying conductor which is free to move, placed in a magnetic

field, exhibits a tendency to deflect. This is motor principle.

Motors in electrical appliances like fans and mixies work on this principle.
Observe the schematic diagram of an electric motor (Fig. 4.25).
• Which are the main parts of an electric motor?
N, S → Magnetic poles PQ → Axis of rotation R1, R2 → Split rings
ABCD → Armature B1, B2 → Graphite brushes

The armature is made by winding insulated copper

wire over a soft iron core of suitable shape. It is
firmly attached to the axis PQ. The armature can
rotate freely about this axis.
From figure 4.25, you can understand the direction
of the current through the armature. Is the direction
of the current on sides AB and CD the same, relative
to the direction of the magnetic field? You have
understood that the direction of the magnetic field Fig. 4.25
is from the north pole to the south pole. Is the force experienced on
the side AB and that on the side CD in the same direction? Find out
based on Fleming's left hand rule and write it down.
• Direction of the force experienced on side AB
(upward / downward)

81
Physics Standard- X

• Direction of the force experienced on the side

CD is
BLDC Motor
(BrushLess Direct Current Motor) (upward / downward)
• What is the effect produced on the armature by
Unlike ordinary DC motors BLDC the forces experienced on sides AB and CD?
motors operate without brushes and
Thus, an electric motor is a device that converts
split rings. Instead of the brushes and
electric energy into mechanical energy based on
rings rubbing against the rotating
the motor principle. Isn't the force experienced in
armature, an electronic switch is
opposite directions on the sides AB and CD?
used to change the direction of the
current as required. Induction motors Even though the direction of the magnetic field
are used in ordinary fans. Fans using does not change, the force is experienced on
BLDC motors reduce electricity sides AB and CD in opposite directions. Isn’t this
consumption up to 60%. Hence because the direction of the current is opposite in
BLDC fans are known as energy AB and CD?
saving fans. Let’s see how this is made possible after half
rotation (180o).
This is made possible by the special arrangement of
brushes and split rings.
• Just before the armature starts rotating
(Fig. 4.25), aren't the contacts between the
brushes and the split rings B1R1 and B2R2?
• When the armature completes half rotation
(Fig. 4.26), how are the contacts between the
brushes and the rings?
B1R2, . . . . . . .
Fig.4.26
• When the armature completes one rotation,
how are the contacts between the brushes and
the rings (Fig. 4.27)?
• At the beginning of rotation (Fig. 4.25), what is
the direction of the current through the side AB
near the north pole?
A→B / B →A
• What about side CD near the south pole?
When half rotation is completed (Fig. 4.26),
isn't the side CD that comes in front of the north
Fig. 4.27
pole?
• What is the direction of the current?
82
C→D / D →C
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

• What is the direction of the current through the side AB that comes
in front of the south pole?
• When sides AB and CD reach in front of the north pole, the
direction of the current is always
inwards / outwards
• And when sides AB and CD reach in front of the south pole, what
will be its direction?
Thus, the direction of the current is the same in the parts of the
armature that reach in front of the magnetic poles. Hence the armature
rotates continuously in the same direction.
The split ring commutator is the mechanism used to change the
direction of the current through AB and CD after each half rotation.

Are there any other devices that operate based on

the motor principle?

Moving Coil Loudspeaker

Paper diaphragm

Voice coil

Field magnet
Fig. 4.28 (a) Fig. 4.28 (b)

• What are the main parts of this device?

• Where is the voice coil situated?
• From where do the audio signals (electric signals) reach the voice
coil?
• To which part is the diaphragm connected?
• What happens when audio signals pass through the voice coil?
• What happens to the diaphragm?
• What is the energy conversion taking place in this device?

83
Physics Standard- X

The electric signals (audio signals) received from a microphone are

amplified using an amplifier. These audio signals are then passed
through a voice coil, which is placed in a magnetic field. The coil
experiences a force and vibrates because the coil carrying the
electric current is placed in a magnetic field. This vibration causes
the diaphragm to vibrate, thus reproducing the sound.

In figure 4.29, AB is a conducting rod that is

free to move.
(a) When the bell switch is turned on, in
which direction will the metal rod AB
move?
b) What should be done to keep the direction
of motion of the rod unchanged while
changing the direction of the current?
Fig. 4.29 What is the energy conversion that takes
place in a moving coil loudspeaker?
Name two devices that work on the principle
of a motor.

1. A conducting wire AB is bent into a loop as shown in the figure.

A battery is connected to the ends of the conductor.
a) When the switch is turned on, find the direction of the
magnetic field around the conductor at points A and B.
b) State the law used for this.
Fig. 4.30
c) Explain how to find the direction of the magnetic field in a
conducting loop.
2. The direction of the magnetic field around a current
carrying conductor AB is marked. Find the direction of
the electric current through the conductor and state the
law that supports this. Fig. 4.31

84
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

3. Choose the correct statement regarding the magnetic polarity of a current carrying
solenoid and write it down
a) If the current in one end of the solenoid is clockwise, then that end is north pole.
b) If the current in one end of the solenoid is clockwise, then that end is south pole.
c) If the current in one end of the solenoid is anticlockwise, then that end is south
pole.
d) None of the above.
4. Observe the diagram.
a) Identify the device shown in the diagram.
b) To rotate the armature in a clockwise direction,
which terminal of the battery should be
connected to the point X?
c) What is the necessity of using a split ring
Fig. 4.32
commutator in this device?
5. What is the function of the diaphragm in a moving coil loudspeaker?
a) To amplify sound signals.
b) To convert mechanical energy into sound waves.
c) To separate high frequency sound signals.
d) To increase the strength of the magnetic field.
6. A conductor is held above and parallel to a magnetic
needle.
a) What causes the magnetic needle to deflect when the
switch is turned on?
b) Suggest two ways to reverse the direction of this
deflection. Fig. 4.33

7. Observe the diagrams [Fig. 4.34 (a), (b)].

a) In both cases, does the
north pole of the magnetic
needle deflect clockwise
or anticlockwise, when the
switch is turned on?
(a) Fig. 4.34
b) Justify your answer. (b)

85
Physics Standard- X

8. AB is a copper wire. An acrylic sheet is kept

above the south pole of a magnet. Two copper
wires are placed above the sheet in such a way
that they are parallel. A battery and a switch
are connected to the wires. AB is placed above
them.
a) In which direction will the copper wire roll Fig. 4.35
when the switch is turned on?
(towards Q / towards P)
b) What happens if the direction of the current
is reversed?
9. Observe figure 4.36.
a) Identify the device shown in the schematic
diagram. Fig. 4.36

b) What is its working principle?

c) What is the energy conversion taking place in this device?
d) Name the labelled parts.
e) Name another device that works on the same principle.
10. A wooden block contains mercury between the north and south poles. A freely
rotating toothed wheel is in contact with the mercury. When an electric current is
passed through the wheel,
a) in which direction is the wheel rotating?
12 V
(clockwise direction / anti clockwise direction)
b) Justify your answer.

Barlow’s wheel
Fig 4.37

1. Construct and operate a device to prove the principle of a motor using two permanent
magnets, a piece of copper wire, conducting wires, and a cell.
2. Dismantle a scrap loudspeaker. Identify its parts and arrange them on a paper with
labels. Explain why the voice coil in it is very thin.
86
 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part IV A
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES OF CITIZENS

ARTICLE 51 A
Fundamental Duties- It shall be the duty of every citizen of India:
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,
the National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional
diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
wild life and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity
so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and
achievements;
(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or,
as the case may be, ward between age of six and fourteen years.