inferential Statistics as a branch of statistics that makes the use of various analytical tools

to draw inferences or conclusion about the population data from sample data.
Again, Population, is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study
while Sample is a set of individual selected from a population, usually intended to represent the
population in a research study.
Inferential involves the use of a sample (1) to estimate some characteristic in a large population;
and (2) to test a research hypothesis about a given population.

SAMPLING
Sampling is the process o of selecting a representative group from the population under study or
what we call the "target population".
"Sampling methods refer to strategies used to select a subset of individuals (a sample) from
a larger population, to study and draw inferences about the entire population. Common
methods include random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and convenience
sampling. Proper sampling ensures representative, generalizable, and valid research
results. " - Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
The Purpose of Sampling
In different types of research the target population might be as broad as all the humans, (like the
whole population in the University). Studying every person in the target population is more or
less impossible, hence researchers select a sample or subset that is likely to be representative of
the target population.
This is important because we want to generalize or draw conclusion from the sample to the target
population. The more representative the sample, the more confident a researcher about the
generalization to be made about the target population. The following lists why is there a need to
do sampling
• Large population can be conveniently covered.
• Time, money, and energy is saved.
• Helpful when units of area are homogenous.
• Used when percent accuracy is not acquired.
• Used when data is unlimited.
Characteristics of a Good Sample
• A true representative of the population
• Free from error due to bias
 • Adequate in size for being reliable
• Units of sample should be independent, relevant, complete, precise and up to date
• Free from random sampling error
• Avoiding substituting the original sample for convenience

Sampling is used in research due to resources, homogeneity of units of area, large population and
unlimited data.

One of the problems that can occur when selecting a sample from a target population
is sampling bias. Sampling bias refers to situations where the sample does not reflect the
characteristics of the target population. It occurs when when certain members of a
population are more likely to be included in a sample than others, potentially skewing the
results .

Types of Sampling Bias

Type Explanation Example
Outgoing people are
A specific type of people
likely to participate in
Self-selection are likely to participate
studies requiring their
in the research.
physical presence.
When studying the
This occurs when a
impact of outdoor
certain type of people are
Non-response activities, people who
more likely to refuse to
rarely go outside may not
participate in the study
respond.
When studying the
This occurs when a impacts of a drug, a
certain group isn’t researcher should
Under coverage
adequately represented adequately represent new
in the study. users and older users of
the medication.
A researcher studying
This is where the
Survivorship winning tricks in casino
samples that didn’t
(games may evaluate the
survive or pass are
winners while ignoring
 ignored or inadequately losers who apply similar
studied. tactics.
The sample may be
In a study on the impact
biased because of the
of workload and stress,
method of screening
Pre-screening or only people with free
participants. Also, how
advertising time may be able to
and where the study is
participate. This can lead
advertised can affect the
to wrong conclusions
sample.
This occurs in medical
researches as healthy Volunteers for a medical
people are generally program are likely to
Healthy user more likely to volunteer engage in regular
to test preventive exercise and are likely to
medications or abstain from drug abuse.
interventions.

The Sampling Methods can be categorized into two types:

1. Probability Sampling: one in which each member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected. Randomness is the element of control.
2. Non-Probability Sampling: one in which each member of the population will not have
an equal chance of being selected, and in many cases, there will be members of the
population who have no chance of being selected.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHQNIQUES
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
All members have the same chance (probability if being selected. Random method provides an
unbiased cross section in the population. E.g. We wish to draw a sample of 50 students form a
population of 300. Place all names in a container and draw 50 names one by one.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Each member of the sample comes after an equal interval from its previous member. E.g. For a
sample of 50 students, the sampling fraction is 50/300 = 1/6, i.e., select one student out of every
six students in the population. The starting point for the selection is chosen randomly.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
The population is divided into smaller homogenous group or strata by some characteristic and
from each of these strata, members are selected randomly. E.g. The population is divided into
Group A, Group B, Group C, Group D, and Group E. Use random sampling or systematic
sampling to select 10 from each group to complete the 50 members of the sample.
CLUSTER SAMPLING (AREA SAMPLING)
(Sampling units are groups rather than individuals). An example of 2-stage sampling. First stage,
a sample of areas is chosen. Second stage, a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
All units from the selected area are included.
In a systematic random sampling, the size of the population is 400 and the number of
sample is 80. Every what nth member will be chosen as part of the sample?
In systematic random sampling, to determine the interval (every nth member), you can use
the formula:
Interval=Population Size/ Sample Size
Given the population size is 400 and the sample size is 80, the interval would be:
Interval=400/80=5
So, you would choose every 5th member of the population to be part of the sample.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING
Also known as purposive sampling. The researcher selects a typical group or individuals
who might represent the larger population. It does not obtain units who are most
conveniently available to the researcher, instead, the researcher selects a "typical group" of
individuals who might represent the larger population.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Procedures of obtaining units or members who are most conveniently available. It consists
of units which are obtained because cases are readily available.

QUOTA SAMPLING
he selection of the sample is made by the researcher, who decides the quotas for selecting
sample from specified subgroups of the population. E.g. an interviewer might need data
from 40 adults and 20 adolescents in order to study students' television habits. Selection
would be 20 adult women and 20 adult men and 10 adolescent girls and 10 adolescent boys.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
The researcher identifies and selects available respondents who meet the criteria inclusion
and asks for referrals who also meet the criteria and represent the population from the
selected respondents. This is also known as Chain sampling, Chain-referral, or sampling
referral sampling.

Probability (Random) Sampling vs Non-Probability (Non-Random) Sampling

Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
You can generalize to the
You cannot generalize beyond the
population defined by the sampling
sample
frame
Allows use of statistics, tests of Exploratory research, generates
hypotheses hypotheses
Can estimate population Population parameters are not of
parameters interest
Adequacy of the sample can't be
Eliminate bias
known
Must have random selection of Cheaper, easier and quicker to
units carry out

How do you call the process o of selecting a representative group from the population
under study or what we call the "target population"?
-SAMPLING
Identify the sampling techniques used: Each name in the population is written on a sheet
of paper, placed in a box and randomly select sheets that will belong to the sample size.
-Simple random sampling
Identify the sampling techniques used: In order to speed up collection of data in your
research, you asked some selected respondents to suggest potential respondents as they
have the same characteristics as them.
-Snowball sampling
This refer to strategies used to select a subset of individuals from a larger population to
study and draw inferences about the entire population.
-Sampling methods
Which of the following are types of sampling bias? Select all that applies.
• Under coverage
• Survivorship
• Healthy user
• Self-selection

Identify the sampling techniques used: From all the nursing students at SPUP, 50 students
are selected from each year level.
-STRATIFIED
Identify the sampling techniques used: From 300 members of the population in the list, 75
individuals are selected by getting every 4th member in the list.
-Systematic sampling
Identify the sampling techniques used: You selected individuals who you think should be
included as a sample.
-PURPOSIVE
Which of the following is a characteristic of a good sample? Select all that applies.
Units of sample should be independent, relevant, complete, precise and up to date.
Adequate in size for being reliable.
Free from error due to bias.
Identify the sampling techniques used: In order to speed up collection of data in your
research, you identify friends that can be members of the sample.
-CONVENIENCE
Which are considered non-biased sampling techniques? Select all that applies.
• simple random sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified
It refers to a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to

represent the population in a research study.

-Sample
 Which are considered biased sampling technique? Select all that applies.

• Judgmental sampling
• Snowball sampling

Sampling technique is used to avoid bias in research studies. True or False?

-True