Question Bank

2marks

Outline main responsibility of switch device?

Outline main responsibility of Bridge device?
Outline main responsibility of Router device?
Identify three ways to handle headers for source routing.
List attractive properties of Switch devices.
Distinguish class full address over classless address.
List different approaches, used to forward the data from source to destination in a switched
network.
Draw a header format of asynchronous Transfer mode.(pg.no:184)
What is source routing in a switched network?(pg.no: 186)
Write any two challenges for mobile networking
Give an illustration of learning bridges.(pg.no:190)
Discuss IP datagram fragmentation and reassembly. (pg.no: 210)
Draw a format of class A, Class B, Class C.(pgno:215)
List main point to bear in mind while forwarding of IP datagram(pg.no:216)
What is a subnet address?
What is subnetting?
What is class less addressing.

10 marks

Explain characteristics of datagram and virtual circuit switching.

Characteristics of Datagram Networks (Connectionless Switching)

1. No Setup Required: Hosts can send packets anytime without prior connection setup.
Packets are forwarded immediately based on the forwarding table.
2. Independent Routing: Each packet is forwarded independently, meaning two packets
from the same source to the same destination may take different paths.
3. No Delivery Guarantee: The sender has no assurance that the packet will be delivered
or that the destination is active, as no acknowledgment is built-in.
4. Highly Scalable: Datagram networks do not require a dedicated path, making them
suitable for large-scale and dynamic environments like the internet.
5. Failure Tolerance: If a switch or link fails, packets can take alternate routes, ensuring
continued communication without major disruptions.
Characteristics of Virtual Circuit Switching (Connection-Oriented Switching)

1. Predefined Path: A logical connection is established before data transfer, ensuring all
packets follow the same path.
2. Reliable & Ordered Delivery: Packets arrive in sequence since they travel through the
same path, reducing the need for reordering.
3. Resource Reservation: Bandwidth and switch capacity are reserved during connection
setup, ensuring stable performance.
4. Lower Overhead After Setup: Once established, packets carry a virtual circuit
identifier instead of a full destination address, reducing processing time.
5. Failure Requires Re-establishment: If a switch or link fails, the entire virtual circuit is
disrupted, requiring a new connection setup.

Discuss Connectionless approach in switched networks. (Datagram) (refer

above answer)

In a connectionless network, packets are transmitted independently without

requiring a pre-established communication path between the sender and receiver.
This approach is commonly used in datagram networks, such as the Internet
using the IP (Internet Protocol).

A connectionless network allows data packets to be sent independently without establishing a

dedicated path. Each packet is routed separately, and they may take different paths to the
destination. This approach provides flexibility but does not guarantee order or delivery.

Examples:

• IP Networks (Internet Protocol): Each packet is forwarded independently, making it

efficient for large-scale communication like web browsing and email.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Used in real-time applications such as video streaming
and online gaming, where speed is prioritized over reliability.
• Ethernet Networks: Frames are transmitted without pre-established connections,
making LAN communication fast and efficient.

Discuss connection oriented approach in switched networks with the help of

examples. Pg: 207
A connection-oriented network requires establishing a dedicated communication
path between sender and receiver before data transmission begins. All packets
follow the same route, ensuring ordered and reliable delivery.
Examples of Connection-Oriented Networks:

• Telephone Networks: Traditional circuit-switched telephone networks establish a

dedicated connection before communication starts.
• TCP in the Internet: The TCP protocol ensures reliable, ordered data transfer in
applications like web browsing, file transfers (FTP), and email (SMTP, IMAP,
POP3).
• MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching): A networking technology that establishes
predefined label-switched paths for efficient and reliable data forwarding.

Connection-oriented networks are best suited for applications requiring high reliability and
sequential data transfer, such as video conferencing, online banking, and voice calls.
Discuss Source Routing in a switched network. Pg: 219
Source Routing in a Switched Network

Source routing is a switching technique in which the entire route a packet must take through the
network is determined by the source host. Instead of relying on switches to determine forwarding
paths dynamically, the packet itself carries all necessary routing information in its header.

How It Works:

1. The source host includes an ordered list of switch ports in the packet header.
2. Each switch reads the next port number in the header and forwards the packet
accordingly.
3. Some implementations rotate or strip the header entries after each hop to ensure the
correct path is followed.

Types of Source Routing:

• Strict Source Routing: Every switch along the path must be explicitly listed.
• Loose Source Routing: Only key waypoints are specified, leaving intermediate routing
 flexible.

Examples:

• IP Source Routing: An optional feature in IPv4 that allows packets to follow a pre-
determined path.
• Token Ring Networks: IBM’s Token Ring used source routing to guide packets through
the network.
• Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS): Uses label stacks, a concept similar to source
routing, for efficient packet forwarding.

Source routing is useful in controlled environments like data centers but is rarely used in large-
scale public networks due to scalability and security concerns.

List importance of routing? Provide the steps and protocol which

follow in the Distance Vector algorithm with examples.
Importance of Routing

Routing is crucial in networking for the following reasons:

1. Efficiency: Ensures data packets take the most optimal path, reducing latency and
improving speed.
2. Reliability: Adapts to network changes, ensuring communication even in case of
failures.
3. Scalability: Supports network expansion by efficiently managing data traffic.
4. Load Balancing: Distributes network traffic effectively, preventing congestion.
5. Security: Some routing protocols include authentication mechanisms to prevent
unauthorized access.

Steps in the Distance Vector Algorithm

The Distance Vector Algorithm follows these steps:

1. Initial Setup:
o Each router maintains a routing table with entries for directly connected
neighbors.
o Example: Router A has two neighbors, B and C, so its initial table contains direct
paths to B and C.
2. Periodic Updates:
o Routers exchange routing tables with their immediate neighbors at regular
intervals.
o Example: Router A shares its table with B and C, and vice versa.
3. Distance Calculation:
o Each router updates its routing table by adding the cost (e.g., hop count) to each
 destination received from its neighbours.
o Example: If A → B has cost 1 and B → D has cost 2, then A can reach D via B
with cost 3.
4. Routing Table Update:
o If a router discovers a shorter path, it updates its table and propagates the
information to neighbors.
o Example: If A initially had a route to D with a cost of 5 but learns from B that a
path exists with a cost of 3, it updates its table and informs other routers.
5. Convergence:
o The process continues until all routers have the most efficient path to each
destination.

Protocols Following Distance Vector Algorithm

1. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

o Uses hop count as a metric (max hop count = 15).
o Updates routing tables every 30 seconds.
o Example: In a small network with routers A, B, and C, A updates its table based
on information from B and C every 30 seconds.
2. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
o Uses additional metrics like bandwidth and delay.
o Updates routing tables every 90 seconds.
o Example: In a large enterprise network, IGRP helps routers find better paths using
multiple factors, not just hop count.

What is routing? Discuss the link state algorithm with an example.

Routing is the process of selecting the best paths in a network along which to send data packets
from one point to another.
It involves various techniques and protocols to ensure data reaches its destination efficiently
and accurately.

Routing

Routing is the process of determining the best path for data packets to travel from a source to a
destination across a network. It involves selecting efficient routes based on network conditions,
cost, and performance. Routers play a key role in forwarding packets based on routing tables.

Link State Algorithm

The Link State Algorithm is a more advanced and efficient routing technique than the Distance
Vector Algorithm. It is used primarily in large and complex networks.
Key Components of the Link State Algorithm:

1. Link: Represents a network connection between two routers.

2. State: Includes information like cost (metric), bandwidth, and delay of the link.

Steps in the Link State Algorithm:

1. Initial State:
o Each router knows the state of its directly connected links and assigns a cost
metric to each.
o Example: Router A connects to Router B with a cost of 5 and Router C with a
cost of 3.
2. Link State Advertisements (LSAs):
o Each router generates an LSA containing details of its directly connected links
and floods this information to all routers in the network.
o Example: Router A sends LSAs to B and C, and they pass it to other routers.
3. Building a Topology Map:
o Routers collect LSAs from all other routers and construct a complete network
topology.
o Example: After receiving LSAs from all routers, A knows the full network layout.
4. Shortest Path Calculation:
o Each router applies Dijkstra's Algorithm to compute the shortest path to all
destinations based on the topology map.
o Example: If Router A wants to reach Router D, it selects the shortest route based
on cumulative link costs.

Example of Link State Algorithm:

Consider a network with four routers: A, B, C, and D.

Link Cost
A→B 5
A→C 3
B→D 2
C→D 4

• Step 1: Each router generates LSAs and shares with all routers.
• Step 2: Every router builds the complete topology map.
• Step 3: Using Dijkstra’s Algorithm, each router computes the shortest paths:
o A to D: A → B → D (Cost = 5 + 2 = 7)
o A to C: Direct (Cost = 3)

Protocols Using Link State Algorithm:

1. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF):

 oUses LSAs and Dijkstra’s Algorithm.
oCommonly used in enterprise networks.
2. Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS):
o Similar to OSPF but more scalable for service provider networks.

Advantages of Link State Algorithm:

Faster Convergence: Quickly adapts to network changes.

Accurate Network Map: Each router has a full view of the network.
Scalability: Suitable for large networks.

Disadvantages:

Complexity: More difficult to implement than Distance Vector.

Resource Intensive: Requires more memory and CPU power.

Write a note on IPV4

Note on IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)

Introduction

IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP) and the most
widely used protocol for identifying devices on a network. It operates at the network layer of
the OSI model and provides unique addressing for devices to communicate over the internet.

Key Features of IPv4

1. 32-bit Addressing – Uses a 32-bit address, allowing approximately 4.3 billion (2³²)
unique addresses.
2. Decimal Notation – Represented in dotted decimal format, e.g., 192.168.1.1.
3. Classful Addressing – Divided into five classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on network size.
4. Subnetting and CIDR – Introduces subnetting for better IP management and CIDR for
efficient address allocation.
5. Connectionless Protocol – Does not guarantee delivery, as it relies on TCP for
reliability.
6. Broadcast Communication – Supports broadcasting to send data to all devices in a
network.
7. Fragmentation – Allows large packets to be divided into smaller fragments for
transmission.

Limitations of IPv4
 • Limited Address Space – The 4.3 billion IP addresses are insufficient due to the rapid
growth of internet-connected devices.
• Security Concerns – IPv4 does not have built-in encryption or authentication.
• Lack of QoS Support – IPv4 does not efficiently support real-time services like VoIP.
• Address Exhaustion – Due to the growing demand, IPv4 addresses are nearly
exhausted.

Transition to IPv6

To overcome IPv4's limitations, IPv6 was introduced, featuring:

• 128-bit addressing (supports 2¹²⁸ addresses).

• Improved security (IPSec is mandatory).
• Better routing efficiency (no need for NAT).

Conclusion

IPv4 remains the backbone of the internet, but due to address exhaustion and security concerns,
the transition to IPv6 is gradually taking place.

Write a note on IPV6

Compare classful and classless addresses.
Comparison of Classful and Classless Addressing

Feature Classful Addressing Classless Addressing (CIDR)

Uses predefined IP address classes Eliminates fixed classes, allowing
Definition
(A, B, C, D, E). flexible address allocation.
Default subnet masks (A: 255.0.0.0, Uses Variable-Length Subnet Mask
Subnet Mask
B: 255.255.0.0, C: 255.255.255.0). (VLSM) for efficient IP usage.
Allows efficient allocation by
Address Often results in wastage of IP
assigning only the required number of
Utilization addresses.
addresses.
Routing Table Larger due to multiple entries for Smaller, as CIDR allows route
Size networks. aggregation.
Limited due to fixed class sizes (e.g.,
Highly scalable because custom
Scalability Class B always has 65,536
prefix lengths can be used.
addresses).
- CIDR example: 192.168.1.0/27 (32
- Class A: 10.0.0.0/8 (16 million IPs)
IP Assignment IPs)
- Class B: 172.16.0.0/16 (65,536 IPs)
Example - Can allocate variable-sized blocks
- Class C: 192.168.1.0/24 (256 IPs)
(e.g., /28 for 16 IPs, /30 for 4 IPs).
Broadcast and Uses default subnet masks, leading to Supports custom subnet masks,
Subnetting more broadcast traffic. reducing unnecessary broadcasts.
Modern internet addressing (post-
Used In Older networks, pre-CIDR era.
1993, with CIDR adoption).

Key Takeaways

• Classful addressing is rigid, leading to inefficient address usage.

• Classless addressing (CIDR) allows flexible subnetting, reducing waste and routing
table size.
• CIDR is the standard today, making classful addressing largely obsolete.

Discuss routing on mobile IP.

Explain an algorithm, which addresses the problem of loops in bridges.

Discuss steps in spanning tree algorithms with the help of examples.

Write a note on : DHCP

Discuss on Global Addresses

Describe how datagram forwards in IP.

Write a note on : ARP.

Write a note on : ICMP
 Write a note on : Virtual networks.
List challenges for mobile networking.

Module 4:
2 marks

List issues in resource allocation.

Give a glimpse on slow start.

Write the characteristics of FIFO.

Write the characteristics of Fair Queuing.

Draw a header format of UDP & TCP

Draw UDP message Queue

Discuss how TCP manages a byte stream.

Discuss a three way handshake.

List TCP congestion avoidance mechanism

List TCP Congestion Avoidance mechanism

Compare congestion avoidance with congestion control mechanisms.

What is congestion?

List issues which affect the network to get congestion in wired networks.

List issues which affect the network to get congestion in wireless networks.

10 marks
Discuss state transition diagram in reliable byte stream.

State Transition Diagram in Reliable Byte Stream (TCP)

A state transition diagram for a reliable byte stream protocol like TCP illustrates how a TCP
connection progresses through various states during its lifecycle. It helps in understanding how
TCP establishes, maintains, and terminates connections reliably.

Connection Establishment (Three-Way Handshake)

• CLOSED → LISTEN: A server process enters the LISTEN state, waiting for
connection requests.
• CLOSED → SYN_SENT: A client initiates a connection by sending a SYN segment
(Active Open).
• LISTEN → SYN_RCVD: The server receives SYN, responds with SYN + ACK.
• SYN_SENT → ESTABLISHED: Client receives SYN + ACK, sends ACK, and the
connection is established.
• SYN_RCVD → ESTABLISHED: Server receives the final ACK, completing the
handshake.

2. Data Transfer State

• ESTABLISHED: The connection is active, and both parties can send/receive data.

FIN (Finish) is a flag in the TCP header used to terminate a connection between two
devices.

3. Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake)

• ESTABLISHED → FIN_WAIT_1: A party initiates connection termination by sending

FIN.
• ESTABLISHED → CLOSE_WAIT: The other party receives FIN, acknowledges it
(ACK), and moves to CLOSE_WAIT to handle any remaining tasks.
• FIN_WAIT_1 → FIN_WAIT_2: After receiving ACK for the first FIN, the sender
moves to FIN_WAIT_2.
• CLOSE_WAIT → LAST_ACK: Once the remaining tasks are completed, the receiver
sends a final FIN.
• FIN_WAIT_2 → TIME_WAIT: After receiving FIN, an acknowledgment is sent
(FIN/ACK) and TCP waits before fully closing to ensure the other side also closes.
• TIME_WAIT → CLOSED: The connection is completely closed after a timeout (to
handle lost ACKs).
• LAST_ACK → CLOSED: The server, after sending FIN, waits for an ACK. Once
received, it moves to CLOSED state.

Key States in TCP Connection

1. CLOSED
 oThe initial state where no connection exists.
oA connection is created when an application initiates a connection request.
2. LISTEN
o The server waits for an incoming connection request from a client.
o The server enters this state after executing socket() and listen().
3. SYN-SENT
o The client sends a SYN (synchronize) segment to initiate a connection.
o The client moves to this state after executing connect().
4. SYN-RECEIVED
o The server receives a SYN request and responds with SYN + ACK.
o The server transitions here after receiving a connection request.
5. ESTABLISHED
o Both client and server successfully exchange SYN and ACK segments.
o This state allows data transmission between both ends.
6. FIN-WAIT-1
o The connection is being closed from one end (active close).
o The client sends a FIN (Finish) segment and waits for an acknowledgment.
7. FIN-WAIT-2
o The other party acknowledges the FIN and prepares to close its end.
o The client moves here after receiving an ACK for its FIN.
8. CLOSING
o Both sides send a FIN simultaneously, leading to a transition to this state.
9. TIME-WAIT
o The sender of the final ACK waits for a period (typically 2 × MSL) to ensure the
other end received it.
o This prevents old duplicate packets from interfering with a new connection.
10. CLOSE-WAIT

• The receiving side acknowledges the FIN but still has data to send.
• The application will close the connection when all pending data is sent.

11. LAST-ACK

• The receiving side sends its own FIN after sending all remaining data.
• The connection is finally closed when the other end acknowledges it.

Discuss on simple Demultiplexer/UDP

Simple Demultiplexer (UDP)

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a simple, connectionless transport protocol that extends
host-to-host delivery into process-to-process communication. It provides minimal overhead and
direct data transmission without establishing a connection.

Key Features of UDP

1. Connectionless Protocol
o Unlike TCP, UDP does not establish a connection before sending data.
o It simply forwards packets to the destination without ensuring reliability or order.
2. Minimal Overhead
o UDP adds only an 8-byte header, containing:
▪ Source Port (16 bits)
▪ Destination Port (16 bits)
▪ Length (16 bits)
▪ Checksum (16 bits)
o Since there is no need for handshaking or connection management, it is faster
than TCP.
3. Process-to-Process Communication (Demultiplexing)
o UDP enables multiple processes on a single host to share the network.
o It uses port numbers to identify sending and receiving processes.
o The combination of port and host address acts as a demultiplexing key.
4. No Error Handling or Flow Control
o UDP does not guarantee packet delivery, order, or error correction.
o If a packet is lost or arrives out of order, UDP does nothing to recover it.
o It relies on the application layer to handle errors if needed.
5. Independent Packets (Datagrams)
o Each UDP packet is independent and carries its own destination information.
o The receiver cannot assume any relationship between received packets.
6. Checksum for Data Integrity
o UDP includes a checksum to verify the correctness of the data.
o The checksum covers the UDP header, message body, and a pseudoheader (from
the IP header).
o If the checksum is incorrect, the packet is discarded.

How UDP Works

1. A client process sends a message to a server process using a destination port.

2. The server receives the message, extracts the source port, and can send a reply.
3. If the client doesn’t know the server’s port, it contacts a well-known port (e.g., DNS at
port 53).
4. Some systems use a port mapper service to dynamically assign ports for services.

Use Cases of UDP

• Real-time applications (e.g., video streaming, online gaming, VoIP) where speed is
more important than reliability.
• DNS (Domain Name System) queries, where fast lookup is needed.
 • Broadcast and multicast applications, such as network discovery protocols.

Conclusion

UDP acts as a simple demultiplexer, allowing processes to communicate using port numbers
with minimal overhead. It is fast but unreliable, making it suitable for applications that
prioritize speed over accuracy.

Discuss on reliable byte stream/TCP.

Reliable Byte Stream (TCP)

Introduction

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented transport protocol that

ensures reliable, in-order, and error-free delivery of data. Unlike User Datagram Protocol
(UDP), which offers an unreliable, connectionless service, TCP provides stream-based
communication, meaning it delivers data as a continuous flow of bytes rather than discrete
packets.

Key Features of TCP

1. Reliable and Ordered Delivery

o Ensures that all transmitted data reaches the destination without errors, in the
correct order, and without duplication.
o Uses sequence numbers to track and reorder packets if they arrive out of order.
2. Connection-Oriented Communication
o Requires a three-way handshake for connection establishment before data
exchange begins.
o Ensures a proper connection termination process to free up resources after
communication ends.
3. Full-Duplex Communication
o Allows simultaneous two-way data transmission (bi-directional byte stream).
o Each TCP connection maintains two separate streams, one for each direction.
4. Flow Control
o Ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with too much data at
once.
o Implements a sliding window mechanism, where the sender adjusts its
transmission rate based on the receiver’s available buffer space.
5. Congestion Control
o Regulates the rate of data transmission to prevent network congestion.
o Uses mechanisms like slow start, congestion avoidance, fast retransmit, and
 fast recovery to manage network load.
6. Error Detection and Retransmission
o Uses checksums to detect corrupted packets.
o Implements automatic retransmission of lost or corrupted packets to ensure data
integrity.
7. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
o Uses port numbers to allow multiple applications to communicate
simultaneously over the same network.
o Ensures that data is delivered to the correct process on the receiving host.

Justify why UDP is a simple demultiplexer.

Why is UDP a Simple Demultiplexer?

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is called a simple demultiplexer because it delivers data to the
correct application using only port numbers without additional processing. Here’s why:

1. Uses Only Port Numbers for Delivery

• UDP identifies applications solely based on port numbers (Source Port & Destination
Port).
• When data arrives, UDP checks the destination port number and forwards it to the
appropriate application.
• Unlike TCP, it does not establish a connection or maintain session states.

2. No Connection Establishment

• UDP does not perform a handshake (unlike TCP's three-way handshake).

• It sends packets immediately, making it faster and more efficient.
• This makes UDP a direct "pass-through" mechanism for data.

3. No Error Handling or Retransmission

• UDP does not check for lost, duplicate, or out-of-order packets.

• It simply delivers packets as they arrive, making it lightweight and low-latency.

4. Independent Datagram Processing

• Each UDP packet (datagram) is treated separately.

• The receiver cannot assume any relationship between packets.
• There is no sequencing or acknowledgment, unlike TCP.
5. Minimal Overhead

• UDP adds only an 8-byte header, keeping the protocol simple.

• No need for extra control mechanisms like flow control or congestion control.

Conclusion

UDP is a simple demultiplexer because it directly forwards packets to the correct

application using only port numbers. It does not track state, perform error correction, or
ensure delivery order, making it a fast, lightweight, and efficient transport protocol.

Discuss Queuing Disciplines. Pg: 20

Write a note on : FIFO

Provide a scenario for congestion in a network and provide an avoidance mechanism.

Write a note on: Fair Queuing.

Discuss how connection establishment and termination are done in TCP to transmit data/3 way
handshake.

Explain FIFO and Fair Queuing Disciplines with real world application.

Write a note on :AIMD,slow start,fast retransmission and fast recovery/ discuss TCP
congestion control mechanism.

Write a note on :DECbit, Random early detection, source based(TCP vegas)/ discuss TCP
congestion Avoidance mechanism.