Definition of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of physical objects (like smart devices) connected to
the internet, allowing them to collect and exchange data.

Characteristics of IoT
Dynamic & Self-Adapting

Self-Configuring

Interoperable Communication Protocols

Unique Identity

Integrated into Information Network

Physical Design of IoT

In IoT, "Things" refer to devices with unique identities that can sense, act, and monitor remotely.
These devices can:

• Share data with other connected devices or apps.

• Collect and process data locally.

• Send data to servers or cloud applications for processing.

• Perform some tasks locally and others within the IoT system, based on time and location
needs.

Request-Response communication model

Request-Response is a communication model in which the client sends requests to the server and
the server responds to the requests.

When the server receives a request, it decides how to respond, fetches the data, retrieves resource
representations, prepares the response, and then sends the response to the client.
Publish-Subscribe communication model
Publish-Subscribe is a communication model involving publishers, brokers, and consumers.

Publishers provide data and send it to topics managed by the broker. Publishers do not know the
consumers.

Consumers subscribe to topics managed by the broker.

When the broker receives data from the publisher, it sends it to all subscribed consumers.

Push-Pull communication model

Push-Pull is a communication model where data producers push data to queues, and consumers pull
data from the queues. Producers do not need to know the consumers.

Queues decouple messaging between producers and consumers.

Queues also act as buffers, helping when the rate of data pushed by producers doesn't match the
rate at which consumers pull data.
Exclusive Pair communication model
Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model that uses a persistent connection
between the client and server.

Once the connection is setup it remains open until the client sends a request to close the connection.
Client and server can send messages to each other after connection setup.

REST-based Communication APIs

Representational State Transfer (REST) is a set of principles for designing web services and APIs that
focus on resources and their states. • REST APIs use the request-response model. • REST constraints
apply to components, connectors, and data in a distributed hypermedia system.
WebSocket-based Communication APIs

WebSocket APIs allow bi- directional, full duplex communication between clients and servers.

WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication model

Exclusive Pair communication model

Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model that uses a persistent connection
between the client and server.

Once the connection is setup it remains open until the client sends a request to close the
connection.

Client and server can send messages to each other after connection setup.
IoT Levels & Deployment Templates
Database: Stores data generated by the IoT device, either locally or in the cloud.

Web Service: Connects the IoT device, application, database, and analysis. It can use HTTP/REST or
WebSocket protocols.

Analysis Component: Analyzes IoT data and presents results in an easy-to-understand format.

Application: Provides an interface for users to control, monitor, and view the IoT system.

A level-1 IoT system has one device that handles sensing, data storage, analysis, and the application.
It's ideal for simple, low-cost solutions with small amounts of data and minimal analysis needs.

A level-2 IoT system has one device for sensing, actuation, and local analysis. Data is stored in the
cloud, and the application is cloud-based. It's suitable for solutions with large data, where analysis is
not complex and can be done locally.
A level-3 IoT system has one device. Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud, and the application is
cloud-based. It's ideal for solutions with large data and computationally intensive analysis.

A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. Data is stored and analyzed in the
cloud, and the application is cloud-based. It includes local and cloud-based observer nodes that
subscribe to and receive data from IoT devices. Level-4 systems are suitable for solutions requiring
multiple nodes, large data, and intensive analysis.
A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes for sensing and/or actuation, and one coordinator node
that collects data from the end nodes and sends it to the cloud. Data is stored and analyzed in the
cloud, with a cloud-based application. Level-5 systems are suitable for wireless sensor networks with
large data and computationally intensive analysis.

A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes for sensing and/or actuation, sending data
to the cloud. Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud, with results visualized in a cloud-based
application. A centralized controller monitors the status of all end nodes and sends control
commands.
Machine-to-Machine (M2M)
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines(or devices) for the purpose
of remote monitoring and control and data exchange.

An M2M area network includes machines (M2M nodes) with hardware for sensing, action, and
communication.

It can use various communication protocols like ZigBee, Bluetooth, ModBus, M-Bus, Wireless M-Bus,
PowerLine Communication (PLC), 6LoWPAN, and IEEE 802.15.4.

The network provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks.

It can use wired or wireless IP-based networks for communication.

M2M area networks may use proprietary or non-IP communication protocols.

The communication network uses IP-based networks.

M2M gateway
Since non-IP based protocols are used within M2Mareanetworks,theM2M nodes within one network
cannot communicate with nodes in an external network.

To enable the communication between remote M2Mareanetworks,M2M gateways are used.

Difference between IoT andM2M

The "Things" in IoT refers to physical objects that have unique identifiers and can sense and
communicate with their external environment (and user applications) or their internal physical
states.
 1. Purpose & Requirements: Define the system’s purpose, behavior, and requirements, such as
data collection, analysis, privacy, security, and user interface needs.

2. Process Specification: Describe the system’s use cases based on the purpose and
requirements.

3. Domain Model: Define the main concepts, entities, and objects in the system, including their
attributes and relationships.

4. Information Model: Specify the structure of information in the system, adding details to
virtual entities from the domain model.

5. Service Specifications: Define services, including service types, inputs/outputs, endpoints,

schedules, preconditions, and effects.

6. IoT Level: Determine the IoT deployment level for the system.

7. Functional View: Define system functions grouped into Functional Groups, focusing on
interactions with domain concepts.

8. Operational View: Define options for deployment and operation, such as service hosting,
storage, and device options.

9. Device & Component Integration: Integrate the devices and components into the system.

10. Application Development: Develop the IoT application.

Genesis of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) emerged around 2008-2009 when the number of connected devices surpassed the
world’s population. Kevin Ashton coined the term "Internet of Things" in 1999 while working at Procter &
Gamble, describing how supply chains could be linked to the Internet. He later explained that IoT gives
computers "senses," allowing them to collect data independently, rather than relying on human input.

The evolution of the Internet has occurred in four phases:

1. Connectivity (1990s): Early Internet access was limited, relying on dial-up modems.

2. Networked Economy: E-commerce and digital supply chains transformed industries, disrupting
traditional retail.

3. Immersive Experiences: Social media, mobile devices, and digital communication became widespread.

4. Internet of Things: Machines and objects now connect autonomously, generating vast data, improving
automation, and creating new efficiencies.

Despite advancements, most devices remain unconnected, meaning IoT is still in its early stages and has the
potential to revolutionize business and society.
IoT and digitization

IoT and digitization are related but different concepts.

• IoT connects physical objects (machines, devices) to a network like the Internet.

• Digitization converts information into digital form and uses data to gain business insights.

For example, in a shopping mall with Wi-Fi tracking:

• IoT involves connecting smartphones to Wi-Fi.

• Digitization analyzes movement data to optimize store layouts, advertising, and security.

Digitization has transformed industries:

• Photography: Digital cameras replaced film.

• Entertainment: Streaming replaced video rentals.

• Transportation: Uber and Lyft disrupted traditional taxis.

In IoT, digitization enhances smart connections, like Nest, which links thermostats, alarms, and cameras for
seamless home automation. Businesses and governments are adopting IoT-driven digitization to improve
efficiency and stay competitive.

Key Aspects of IoT

Scale
OT networks can be much larger than IT networks. For example, a utility company with tens of thousands of
employees may have millions of smart meters, expanding the network scale by over 1,000 times. IPv6 helps
manage such large networks (see Chapter 5).

Security
With more connected devices, security risks increase. A hacked device can be used to attack others. IoT security
must be built into every layer of the system (see Chapter 8).

Privacy
Sensors collect personal data, from health records to shopping habits. Businesses value this data, raising
questions about ownership and control.

Big Data & Analytics

IoT generates vast amounts of data that must be processed efficiently to extract useful insights. Managing this
influx is a major challenge (see Chapter 7).

Interoperability
IoT involves multiple protocols and architectures, some proprietary and others open. Standardization efforts aim
to unify IoT systems (see Chapters 2, 4, 5, and 6).
A sensor measures a physical quantity and converts it into a digital format for further processing. Like human
senses, sensors gather data that helps intelligent devices make decisions. Unlike humans, sensors can measure a
vast range of variables with high precision, enabling advanced IoT applications.

Types of Sensor Classifications:

• Active vs. Passive – Active sensors need an external power source, while passive sensors do not.

• Invasive vs. Non-invasive – Invasive sensors interact directly with what they measure, while non-
invasive sensors do not.

• Contact vs. No-contact – Contact sensors require physical touch, while no-contact sensors measure
from a distance.

• Absolute vs. Relative – Absolute sensors measure fixed values, while relative sensors compare against a
reference.

• Application-based – Sensors are categorized by the industry they serve.

• Measurement method – Sensors can use thermoelectric, electrochemical, optic, or other methods.

• Measured variable – The most practical classification, grouping sensors by what they detect (e.g.,
temperature, pressure, motion).

This classification helps organize sensors based on their role in IoT networks.
Types of Sensors and Their Functions

• Position Sensors – Measure an object's position, either absolute or relative. (e.g., Potentiometer,
Inclinometer, Proximity Sensor)

• Occupancy & Motion Sensors – Detect people or object presence (occupancy) or movement (motion).
(e.g., Electric Eye, Radar)

• Velocity & Acceleration Sensors – Measure speed and changes in motion. (e.g., Accelerometer,
Gyroscope)

• Force Sensors – Detect applied force and its magnitude. (e.g., Force Gauge, Tactile Sensor)

• Pressure Sensors – Measure force exerted by liquids or gases per unit area. (e.g., Barometer, Bourdon
Gauge)

• Flow Sensors – Monitor fluid flow rate and volume. (e.g., Anemometer, Water Meter)

• Acoustic Sensors – Capture sound levels and convert them into signals. (e.g., Microphone, Hydrophone)

• Humidity Sensors – Measure water vapor content in the air or mass. (e.g., Hygrometer, Soil Moisture
Sensor)

• Light Sensors – Detect light presence, visible or invisible. (e.g., Infrared Sensor, Photodetector)

• Radiation Sensors – Identify radiation levels in the environment. (e.g., Geiger Counter, Scintillator)

• Temperature Sensors – Measure heat or cold using contact or non-contact methods. (e.g.,
Thermometer, Calorimeter)

• Chemical Sensors – Detect specific chemicals in a system. (e.g., Breathalyzer, Smoke Detector)

• Biosensors – Identify biological elements like cells, enzymes, or antibodies. (e.g., Blood Glucose Sensor,
Pulse Oximeter)

Actuators are devices that receive a control signal (electric or digital) and perform a physical action, such as
movement or force application. They complement sensors, which measure physical variables and send data for
processing. In an IoT system, processors interpret sensor data and send signals to actuators, much like the
human nervous system signals muscles to move.

Classification of Actuators:

• By Motion Type – Linear, rotary, or multi-axis movement.

• By Power Output – High power, low power, or micro power.

• Binary vs. Continuous – Binary actuators have fixed states (on/off), while continuous actuators allow
variable control.

• By Application – Actuators are categorized by industry use.

• By Energy Source – The most common classification, based on how they are powered (e.g., electric,
hydraulic, pneumatic).

Actuators, like sensors, vary widely in design and function, playing a key role in robotics, automation, and IoT
systems.
Definition of a Smart Object

A smart object is a device with four key features:

1. Processing Unit – Handles data acquisition, analysis, and control. Most commonly, a microcontroller is
used due to its small size, low cost, and efficiency.

2. Sensors and/or Actuators – Sensors gather environmental data, while actuators perform physical
actions. A smart object may have one or both.

3. Communication Device – Connects the object to other devices or networks, usually wirelessly for cost
and deployment benefits.

4. Power Source – Provides energy to the device, often optimized for low consumption. Power may come
from batteries, infrastructure, or renewable sources like solar.

These elements define how smart objects function within an IoT network.

The Seven Layers of the IoT Reference Model

The IoT Reference Model defines how data flows from physical devices to business applications. Here’s a
breakdown of each layer:

1. Physical Devices & Controllers Layer

• Contains sensors, actuators, and endpoint devices that collect and transmit data.

• Devices range from tiny sensors to industrial machines.

• Primary function: Generate and transmit data over a network.

2. Connectivity Layer

• Ensures reliable and timely data transmission between devices and networks.

• Covers last-mile networks, gateways, and backhaul networks.

• Responsible for networking and communication protocols.

3. Edge Computing Layer (Fog Computing)

• Processes data near the source to reduce latency and bandwidth use.

• Filters, aggregates, and reformats data before sending it to higher layers.

• Helps trigger alerts or local actions based on pre-set thresholds.

4. Data Accumulation Layer

• Stores raw data for later use by applications.

• Converts event-based data into query-based processing.

5. Data Abstraction Layer

• Ensures consistent data formatting and semantics from various sources.

• Uses virtualization to consolidate data into single or multiple storage systems.

6. Applications Layer

• Processes and analyzes data using software applications.

 • Provides monitoring, control, and reporting functions.

7. Collaboration & Processes Layer

• Shares insights and enables decision-making across business processes.

• Helps businesses optimize workflows and leverage IoT benefits.

Each layer plays a vital role in making IoT data valuable and actionable.