Computer Science Notes

Chapter : 1
Q1: What is a Computer?
Ans:​
A computer is an electronic data processing machine that performs operations like calculations, comparisons,
and logical decision-making, all based on the instructions given by a program. It takes input, processes the
data, and produces output.

Computers are now used in every field of life including business, education, banking, research, transportation,
media, and entertainment. The development of the computer has played a major role in the progress of
science and technology.

Q2: Define the term ‘Computer System’.

Ans:​
A computer system refers to a combination of different components that work together to complete a task. It
includes both hardware and software. These components are logically connected and depend on each other.
The input devices send data to the CPU, which processes it and sends the result to output devices. Storage
devices store data permanently or temporarily, while the operating system manages all operations. All these
parts combine to form a single system that performs efficiently.

Characteristics of a System:
1.​ It consists of multiple elements.​

2.​ All elements are logically connected.​

3.​ Each part works together to achieve a common goal.​

Q3: Define the term ‘Data’.

Ans:​
Data refers to raw facts and figures that do not have any meaning on their own. It may be in the form of
numbers, characters, symbols, or images. Computers process data to generate meaningful information. For
example, 85, 90, and 95 are just numbers (data), but when labeled as "Marks of a student," they become
meaningful (information).

Q4: Define the term ‘Information’.

Ans:​
Information is the processed form of data. When data is arranged, organized, or interpreted in a meaningful
way, it becomes information. Information is useful and helps in making decisions. For example, a list of
students with their total marks is considered information.

Q5: Differentiate between Data and Information.

Ans:

Data Information

Raw facts and figures Meaningful and organized

data

Has no meaning on its Has clear meaning and

own purpose

Example: 92, 88, 75 Marks of students: Ali - 92,

etc.

Q6: What is meant by Evolution of Computers?

Ans:​
The computers we use today are the result of hundreds of years of evolution. In the past, people tried to invent
different tools and machines to solve mathematical problems. With time, these machines developed into
modern computers. The evolution of computers is generally divided into three main eras.

Q7: What is the Mechanical Era (Dark Age)? Write about the Abacus.
Ans:​
The mechanical era is known as the Dark Age because during this time, machines were made to solve
mathematical problems but without electricity. These machines were operated manually. One of the earliest
known devices from this era is the Abacus.
Abacus (3000 B.C.):​
The Abacus was invented about 5000 years ago. It is known as the first counting device. It is still used today
for teaching arithmetic to children. The Abacus consists of beads that move along rods to perform basic
calculations. It is considered the first step towards the invention of modern computers.

Q8: Name the three categories of Peripheral Devices.

Ans:​
The three categories of peripheral devices are:
1.​ Input Devices – used to enter data into the computer (e.g. keyboard, mouse).​

2.​ Output Devices – used to display the result (e.g. monitor, printer).​

3.​ Storage Devices – used to store data permanently or temporarily (e.g. hard disk, USB flash drive).​
Q1: Write a short note on the History of Computers.
Ans:​
The history of computers is a journey that began thousands of years ago with simple tools and evolved into
today’s powerful machines. Humans have always tried to invent tools to solve mathematical and logical
problems easily. The earliest known device is the Abacus (around 3000 B.C.), which was used for basic
counting. Later, machines like Pascaline (by Blaise Pascal), Analytical Engine (by Charles Babbage), and
others were introduced during the Mechanical Era. These machines were operated manually.
With the invention of electricity, mechanical machines were replaced by electronic devices, leading to rapid
progress. The development of modern computers started after World War II. Over time, computers became
smaller, faster, more reliable, and cheaper. The history of computers can be divided into eras and generations,
each bringing a new technological improvement.

Q2: Who is Charles Babbage? Why is he called the Father of Computers?

Ans:​
Charles Babbage was a British mathematician and inventor. He designed a mechanical device called the
Analytical Engine in the 1830s, which had all the basic features of a modern computer such as input,
processing, memory, and output. Although the machine was never built completely during his lifetime, his
design became the foundation for future computer development. For this reason, Charles Babbage is known
as the Father of the Computer.

Q3: What is meant by the Generations of Computers?

Ans:​
The term "generation of computers" refers to the stages of development in computer technology over time.
Each generation represents a major breakthrough in hardware and software. These generations are classified
based on the technology used in the development of the computers—especially in their processing units and
memory devices.
There are five main generations of computers. Each generation introduced more powerful, smaller, faster, and
more efficient machines than the previous one. The generations help us understand how computers evolved
from bulky machines to the modern laptops and smartphones we use today.

Q4: Explain the five Generations of Computers. (Long Question)

Ans:

1st Generation Computers (1940–1956)

The first generation of computers (1940–1956) used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. These machines were extremely large, consumed a lot of power, generated excessive heat, and were
programmed using machine language.
​
2nd Generation Computers (1956–1963)
The second generation (1956–1963) replaced vacuum tubes with transistors, making computers smaller,
faster, more reliable, and energy-efficient. Programming became easier with the introduction of assembly
language.
Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 7094.​
3rd Generation Computers (1964–1971)
In the third generation (1964–1971), integrated circuits (ICs) were introduced, which allowed the placement of
thousands of transistors on a single chip. These computers were more powerful and supported high-level
programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN. They also featured improved input/output devices and
operating systems. ​
Examples: IBM System/360, PDP-8.​

4th Generation Computers (1971–Present)

The fourth generation (1971–present) saw the invention of the microprocessor, where the entire CPU was
placed on a single chip. This led to the development of personal computers (PCs), which were affordable, fast,
and compact. Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) and application software became common during this period.​
Examples: Intel-based PCs, Apple computers.​

5th Generation Computers (Present & Beyond)

The fifth generation of computers (present and beyond) is based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). These
computers are designed to simulate human thinking and decision-making processes. They can learn from
experience, recognize speech, and understand natural language. Technologies like robotics, machine learning,
and quantum computing are part of this generation. The focus of this generation is on increasing processing
speed, improving user interaction, and building intelligent systems that can perform tasks without human
intervention.​
Examples: AI assistants like Siri, self-driving cars, and supercomputers.

Q4: Explain the five Generations of Computers. (Long Question)

Answer: The development of computers is categorized into five generations, each representing major
technological advancements in computer hardware and software.

First Generation (1940-1956): These computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. They were very large, expensive, and consumed a lot of electricity. An example is ENIAC.
Programming was done in machine language.

Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and
more reliable. These computers used assembly language and high-level languages like COBOL and
FORTRAN for programming.

Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs) replaced transistors, which allowed multiple
components to be placed on a single chip. This reduced the size and cost of computers and increased their
speed and efficiency.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors were introduced, which integrated thousands of ICs into
a single silicon chip. This made personal computers (PCs) possible. Computers became affordable and widely
used.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): This generation is based on Artificial Intelligence (AI), machine
learning, and advanced parallel processing. These computers are capable of understanding natural language,
recognizing patterns, and making decisions like humans. Examples include voice assistants like Siri and Alexa.
Q5: Classify Computers According to Size. (Short Question)

Answer: Computers can be classified by size as follows:

1.​ Supercomputers: The fastest and most powerful computers used for complex scientific calculations.
2.​ Mainframe Computers: Large computers used by big organizations for bulk data processing.
3.​ Minicomputers: Mid-sized computers used in small organizations or departments.
4.​ Microcomputers: Also called personal computers (PCs), used by individuals for daily tasks.
5.​ Workstations: High-performance PCs used for technical and scientific applications.

Q6: Classify Computers According to Purpose/Function. (Short Question)

Answer:

1.​ General Purpose Computers: Used for performing a variety of tasks such as word processing,
browsing, gaming, etc.
2.​ Special Purpose Computers: Designed to perform specific tasks like ATM machines, robots, and
washing machines with embedded systems.

Q7: What is the importance of computers in daily life? (Long Question)

Answer: Computers have become an integral part of our daily life. From education to entertainment, business
to communication, computers are used in almost every aspect of human activity. In schools and colleges,
computers help students learn through digital content and online courses. In the healthcare sector, computers
maintain patient records and assist in diagnosis. Businesses rely on computers for accounting, inventory
management, and communication. Government sectors use them for public services and data management.
Even in homes, computers are used for online shopping, social networking, and banking. Thus, computers
have made our lives easier, faster, and more productive.

Computer System Overview

1. What is a system? Why do we refer to a computer as a system? ​
Answer: ​
Computer System:
A system is a combination of interconnected parts that work together to achieve a common purpose. ​
There are three main characteristics of a system:
​
1. It consists of multiple elements.
2. All elements within the system are logically connected.
3. Each element within a system is organized to ensure the system’s goal is achieved. ​
​
We refer to the computer as a system because it consists of many integrated components, such as
input, output, storage devices, CPU, and operating system, which all work together to complete
tasks. ​
​
For Example, input and output devices depend on the signals from the CPU to function. Each
component depends on the others, and they only work fully combined as a single system. ​
​
2. Name three categories of Peripheral Devices. ​
Answer: ​
​
Peripheral Devices:
The three categories of peripheral devices are: ​

i. Input Hardware: ​
Input Hardware consists of devices for entering data into a computer system in a form that can be
processed by the computer. ​
​
There are two kinds of input Hardware: ​
1. Keyboard input devices ​
2. Non-keyboard input devices
These devices take input from the user and send it to the computer for processing. ​

​
ii. Output Hardware:
Output hardware refers to the devices that allow computers to communicate information to users, by
converting machine-readable information into human-readable form, such as visuals or sounds.
Output hardware can be divided into two main categories. ​
1. Soft-copy output hardware ​
2. Hard-copy output hardware ​
​
iii. Storage Hardware: ​
Storage hardware refers to the devices that store data, files, and programs for long-term use. ​
The secondary storage, or storage medium, is permanent. Secondary storage refers to the devices
that store data permanently, even when the computer is turned off. ​

Four main technologies are used to store data today: ​

i. Magnetic storage
ii. Optical storage
iii. Flash storage
iv. Cloud storage

Q3: What is the purpose of Input and Output devices?

Input and output devices serve as essential interfaces between the user and the computer system,
facilitating seamless communication and interaction. Input devices, such as keyboards, mice,
scanners, and microphones, enable users to enter data and commands into the computer, allowing
the system to process information and perform specific tasks. For instance, a keyboard allows for text
input, while a mouse facilitates navigation through graphical user interfaces. On the other hand,
output devices like monitors, printers, and speakers convey the results of the computer's processing
to the user. Monitors display visual information, printers produce physical copies of digital documents,
and speakers emit audio signals. Together, these devices create a dynamic exchange of information,
enabling users to effectively interact with and utilize computer systems for a wide range of
applications. ​

Q4: What are the two main categories of input hardware?

Input hardware can be broadly categorized into:​

1.​ Text Input Devices: These devices are primarily used for entering textual data into the
computer. The most common example is the keyboard, which allows users to input letters,
numbers, and other characters.​​

2.​ Pointing Devices: These devices enable users to interact with the computer's graphical user
interface by controlling the movement of the cursor or pointer on the screen. Examples include​

○​ Mouse: A handheld device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface,

allowing users to move the cursor and select objects on the screen.​​

○​ Trackball: A stationary device featuring a large ball that can be rotated with the hand to
move the cursor. Unlike a mouse, the device itself remains stationary while the user
manipulates the ball.​​

○​ Touchpad: A flat, touch-sensitive surface that detects finger movement and is

commonly integrated into laptops as an alternative to a mouse.​​

○​ Joystick: A lever that can be moved in multiple directions to control the movement of
an object on the screen, often used in gaming applications.​​

These categories encompass a variety of devices designed to facilitate different forms of data entry
and user interaction with computer systems. ​

Q5: What determines what the function keys on a keyboard do?

The functionality of the function keys (F1 through F12) on a keyboard is primarily determined by the
software application currently in use and, in some cases, by the operating system. These keys serve
as programmable shortcuts that can perform a variety of tasks depending on the context. For
example:​

●​ F1: Often universally recognized as the help key, pressing F1 typically opens the help
documentation for the active application.​​

●​ F5: Commonly used to refresh the contents of a window or webpage in web browsers and
other applications.​​

Additionally, on many modern keyboards, especially those on laptops, function keys may have dual
purposes. They can control hardware features such as screen brightness, volume, or media playback
when used in combination with the 'Fn' (Function) key. The specific actions assigned to function keys
can often be customized within the software settings, allowing users to tailor them to their preferences
and workflow. ​

Q6: What is the difference between dumb terminals and smart terminals?

Dumb terminals and smart terminals differ primarily in their processing capabilities and the extent to
which they rely on a central computer:​

●​ Dumb Terminals: These are basic input/output devices that lack their own processing power.
They serve merely as interfaces, allowing users to interact with a central mainframe or server.
All processing tasks are performed by the central computer, with the dumb terminal solely
responsible for transmitting user inputs to the server and displaying the server's outputs.​​

●​ Smart Terminals: In contrast, smart terminals possess their own processing capabilities. They
can perform certain computations independently without immediate reliance on a central
server. This autonomy allows smart terminals to execute local applications, validate data entry,
and reduce the processing load on the central computer.​​

The choice between using dumb or smart terminals depends on the specific needs of an organization,
including factors like network infrastructure, processing requirements, and cost considerations.

Q7: List and describe two hand-held input devices.

Hand-held input devices are portable tools that allow users to interact with computer systems. Two
notable examples include:​

1.​ Barcode Scanner: This device is used to capture and read information contained in barcodes.
When the scanner's light source illuminates the barcode, sensors detect the reflected light, and
the device decodes the information into digital data that the computer can process. Barcode
scanners are widely used in retail for inventory management and point-of-sale transactions.​​
 2.​ Light Pen: A light pen is a pen-shaped device that allows users to interact directly with the
computer screen. By detecting the screen's light emissions, it enables precise selection and
drawing on the display. Light pens were historically used with CRT monitors for graphic design
and technical drawing applications.​​

These devices enhance user interaction with computers by providing intuitive and efficient methods
for data input and manipulation. ​

Q8: What is a scanning device?

A scanning device, commonly known as a scanner, is an input device that captures images, text, or
objects and converts them into digital data. This process involves illuminating the item with a light
source and using sensors to detect the reflected light, thereby creating a digital representation of the
original item. Scanners are widely used to digitize physical documents, photographs, and artworks,
allowing for electronic storage, editing, and sharing. The digitized outputs can be saved in various file
formats and integrated into different software applications for further processing.

Q9: What are the three most common types of scanners? What type of data does each scan?
Answer: The three most common types of scanners are:

1.​ Flatbed Scanner: Scans documents and images placed flat on a glass surface. It captures
high-quality images of papers and photos.
2.​ Sheet-fed Scanner: Pulls the document through the scanner. It is efficient for scanning
multiple pages quickly.
3.​ Hand-held Scanner: A portable device that is manually moved over the material to be
scanned. It is used for scanning barcodes or small documents. Each scanner type is designed
to capture different formats of data, such as text, images, or codes

Q10: What are the main uses of Voice Input devices?

Answer: Voice input devices are used to convert spoken words into digital data that computers can
process. These devices are commonly used for:

●​ Voice-controlled applications like virtual assistants (e.g., Siri, Alexa)

●​ Speech-to-text conversion for writing documents
●​ Voice commands to control computer functions
●​ Accessibility tools for users with physical disabilities They provide a hands-free and efficient
method of interacting with digital devices.

Q11: Explain how a voice recognition system works. Answer: A voice recognition system works
by capturing the user's spoken input using a microphone and converting it into digital signals. These
signals are then analyzed using pattern recognition algorithms to identify the spoken words. The
system compares the sound patterns with a pre-stored vocabulary to recognize the speech. More
advanced systems use artificial intelligence to improve accuracy by learning from the speaker’s voice
over time. Voice recognition is widely used in smartphones, smart assistants, and various hands-free
systems.

Q12: What is the main difference between a mouse and a trackball?

Answer: The main difference between a mouse and a trackball lies in their operation. A mouse is a
hand-held device that is moved across a surface to control the cursor on the screen. In contrast, a
trackball remains stationary while the user rolls a ball embedded in the device to move the cursor.
Trackballs are often preferred in environments where space is limited, as they require less desk
space and can offer more precise control for certain tasks.

Q13: Why is the process of formatting (initializing) important?

Answer: Formatting, also known as initializing, is an important process because it prepares a storage
device, such as a hard disk or USB drive, to store data. It creates a file system that organizes how
data is stored and retrieved. Formatting also removes all existing data on the storage medium,
ensuring that it is clean and ready for use. Without formatting, the operating system cannot recognize
or write data to the disk properly.

Q14: What is the function of primary storage, and how does secondary storage differ from it?

Answer: Primary storage, also known as main memory or RAM, is used to store data and programs
that are currently in use. It provides fast access to the processor, allowing quick execution of
instructions. Secondary storage, on the other hand, refers to devices like hard drives, SSDs, and
CDs, which are used to store data permanently. Unlike RAM, secondary storage retains data even
when the computer is turned off, but it is slower in accessing data compared to primary memory.

Q15: Describe why having more main memory, or RAM, in your computer is useful.

Answer: Having more RAM in a computer is beneficial because it allows the system to run multiple
applications simultaneously without slowing down. It improves the overall performance by reducing
the need to access slower secondary storage during processing. More RAM helps in smoother
multitasking, faster loading of programs, and better handling of large files, which enhances the user
experience significantly.

Q16: What is the difference between volatile and non-volatile storage? Give an example of
each.

Answer: Volatile storage loses its contents when the power is turned off. An example is RAM, which
temporarily holds data and instructions during processing. Non-volatile storage, on the other hand,
retains data even when the computer is shut down. Examples include hard drives, SSDs, and USB
flash drives. Non-volatile storage is essential for long-term data retention.

Q17: Differentiate between RAM and ROM.

Answer: RAM (Random Access Memory) is a type of volatile memory that temporarily holds data and
instructions that are actively being used by the CPU. ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of
non-volatile memory that contains permanent instructions for the computer, such as the startup
process. RAM can be written to and read from, while ROM is mainly used for reading and cannot be
modified easily.

Q18: What are Registers?

Answer: Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU that temporarily hold data
and instructions during processing. They are used to store intermediate results, memory addresses,
and instructions for quick access by the CPU. Registers are crucial for the CPU’s performance, as
they enable fast processing and efficient execution of instructions.

Q19: What is cache memory? How is it different from primary memory?

Answer: Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located close to or within the CPU. It stores
frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up processing. The main difference between
cache and primary memory (RAM) is that cache is faster but has a much smaller capacity. It reduces
the time needed to access data from main memory, thus improving overall system performance.

Q20: What is the difference between hardcopy and softcopy?

Answer: A hardcopy refers to a physical printout of data, such as a document printed on paper. A
softcopy, on the other hand, is the digital version of data that is displayed on a screen, such as a PDF
file viewed on a monitor. Hardcopies are tangible and permanent, while softcopies are intangible and
can be edited or shared electronically.

21. What are the two types of display screens? Display screens are primarily categorized into two
types:

1.​ Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): These are traditional display screens that use vacuum tube
technology. An electron gun emits a beam of electrons that strikes the phosphorescent surface
of the screen, forming images. CRTs are large, heavy, and consume more power.
2.​ Flat-Panel Displays: These are modern screens that are thinner and lighter. They use
technologies such as LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), LED (Light Emitting Diode), and OLED
(Organic LED). Flat-panel displays are energy-efficient and are commonly used in laptops,
monitors, and televisions.

22. Define the following terms related to screen display:

●​ CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): A display device that uses electron beams to create images on a
phosphorescent screen. It is bulky but was commonly used in older monitors and TVs.
●​ Pixel: The smallest unit of a digital image or display. Each pixel represents a single point in the
image and can display different colors. The quality of the image depends on the number of
pixels.
●​ Resolution: Refers to the number of pixels in each dimension that a display can show. It is
expressed as width × height (e.g., 1920 × 1080). Higher resolution means sharper and more
detailed images.
 ●​ Monochrome: A display that uses only one color of light, typically black on a white or green
background. It was common in early computer screens and is still used in some devices for
simplicity and clarity.

23. List and describe four types of flat-screen technologies.

1.​ LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Uses liquid crystals that align to block or allow light through.
Requires a backlight to produce images. Common in monitors and TVs.
2.​ LED (Light Emitting Diode): A type of LCD that uses LED backlighting instead of fluorescent
lights, making it more energy-efficient with better contrast.
3.​ OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode): Does not require a backlight. Each pixel emits its own
light, resulting in deeper blacks, higher contrast, and better image quality.
4.​ Plasma Display: Uses small cells filled with gas that emit ultraviolet light when electrically
charged, which then lights up phosphors to form images. Known for good color accuracy and
wide viewing angles but is less common now.

24. List some relative advantages and disadvantages of CRT and flat-panel monitors.

●​ CRT Monitors:
○​ Advantages: Better color accuracy, fast response time, low cost.
○​ Disadvantages: Heavy, large, consume more electricity, take up more space.
●​ Flat-Panel Monitors:
○​ Advantages: Slim, lightweight, energy-efficient, occupy less space, better for modern
setups.
○​ Disadvantages: Initially more expensive, may have limited viewing angles (older
models).

25. Describe four hardware devices that produce hardcopy output.

1.​ Printer: Produces text and images on paper. Types include inkjet, laser, and dot-matrix.
2.​ Plotter: Produces large drawings and graphics like architectural plans and engineering
designs. Works by moving pens over the surface of the paper.
3.​ Photocopier: Copies documents onto paper using scanning and printing mechanisms.
4.​ Fax Machine: Sends and receives printed documents over a telephone line.

26. What is a printer? What are the two main types of printers?

A printer is an output device that transfers text and images from a computer onto paper. It provides a
permanent or hardcopy version of digital content. The two main types are:

1.​ Impact Printers: Work by striking a ribbon against the paper to form characters (e.g.,
dot-matrix printers).
2.​ Non-Impact Printers: Do not strike the paper; instead, they use laser or inkjet technologies to
form characters.

27. What is a Letter-quality printer? A dot-matrix printer?

 ●​ Letter-quality Printer: Produces print output comparable to a typewriter. It prints clear, sharp
text suitable for formal documents.
●​ Dot-Matrix Printer: An impact printer that uses a print head with pins to strike an ink ribbon,
forming characters using a pattern of dots. It is durable and used in situations where carbon
copies or continuous paper is needed.

28. What is an Impact printer? A non-impact printer?

●​ Impact Printer: These printers physically strike the paper using a print head and ribbon.
Examples include dot-matrix and daisy wheel printers. They are noisy but durable and capable
of printing multi-part forms.
●​ Non-Impact Printer: These printers do not physically strike the paper. Instead, they use laser
or inkjet technologies to create images and text. They are quieter and faster with higher print
quality.

29. Differentiate between impact and non-impact printers. Give one example of each.

●​ Impact Printers:
○​ Mechanically strike the paper.
○​ Noisy and slow.
○​ Can print multi-part forms.
○​ Example: Dot-Matrix Printer
●​ Non-Impact Printers:
○​ Use laser or inkjet technology.
○​ Quieter and faster.
○​ Produce higher quality print.
○​ Example: Laser Printer

30. What does a laser printer have over other types of printers?

Laser printers have several advantages:

●​ Faster printing speeds.

●​ Higher print quality, especially for text.
●​ Lower cost per page in high-volume environments.
●​ Quieter operation.
●​ Less smudging and quicker drying of prints. These features make laser printers suitable for
offices and professional use.

31. What is a plotter? What is its principal use?

A plotter is a specialized printer used for printing large-format images such as architectural blueprints,
engineering drawings, and maps. Instead of using dots like regular printers, plotters draw continuous
lines using a pen or other writing tools. Their main use is in fields that require precision and
large-scale graphics, like CAD (Computer-Aided Design).

32. Why do many people find it necessary to use a plotter to output information?
Plotters are essential for professionals who need accurate, high-resolution prints of large diagrams
and graphics. They are especially useful in architecture, engineering, and design because they
produce detailed and scalable outputs that standard printers cannot match. Plotters ensure precision
in measurements and technical details, which is critical in these industries.

33. Distinguish between primary and secondary storage.

Primary storage, also called main memory, is the memory that the computer uses to store data and
instructions that are actively being used. It is volatile, meaning data is lost when the power is turned
off. Examples include RAM (Random Access Memory) and cache memory.

Secondary storage, on the other hand, is non-volatile memory used to store data permanently. It
holds data even when the computer is powered off. Examples include hard drives, SSDs, USB drives,
and CDs. Primary storage is faster but has limited capacity, whereas secondary storage is slower but
has much larger storage capacity.

34. What is secondary storage? How does it differ from primary storage?

Secondary storage refers to storage devices and media that retain data permanently, even when the
computer is turned off. It is used to store large volumes of data that do not need to be accessed
immediately. Examples include hard disks, solid-state drives, CDs, DVDs, and USB flash drives. In
contrast, primary storage is temporary and stores data currently in use. It is faster but smaller in
capacity and loses all stored information once power is turned off. Secondary storage is essential for
keeping files, applications, and the operating system intact between uses.

35. What are the different types of secondary storage devices?

Secondary storage devices are used to store data permanently. They are not erased when the
computer is turned off. These devices are essential for saving files, programs, and the operating
system. The main types of secondary storage devices are:

1.​ Hard Disk Drive (HDD):​

A traditional storage device that uses spinning disks to read and write data. It offers high
capacity at a low cost.​

2.​ Solid State Drive (SSD):​

A faster and more durable alternative to HDDs. It has no moving parts and uses flash memory
to store data.​

3.​ Optical Discs:​

These include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. Data is read and written using a laser. They are
portable and used for media storage.​
 4.​ USB Flash Drive:​
A small, portable device that uses flash memory. It connects through a USB port and is ideal
for transferring files between devices.​

5.​ Memory Cards:​

Compact storage used in mobile phones, cameras, and other portable devices. Examples
include SD cards and microSD cards.​

6.​ External Hard Drives:​

Similar to internal hard drives but portable. They connect via USB or other ports and are used
for backups or extra storage.​

7.​ Cloud Storage:​

An online storage service where data is saved on remote servers accessed through the
internet. Examples include Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive.

36. What is a hard disk?

A hard disk is a non-volatile storage device that stores data permanently using magnetic storage. It
consists of spinning disks (platters) coated with a magnetic material, and data is read/written using
read/write heads. Hard disks offer large storage capacities and are used to store operating systems,
applications, and user data. They are found in desktops, laptops, and servers.

37. Define the following terms:

●​ Track: A circular path on the surface of a disk where data is magnetically recorded and read.
Each platter has multiple tracks.
●​ Sector: A subdivision of a track. It is the smallest physical storage unit on a disk and typically
holds 512 bytes of data.
●​ Cylinder: A set of tracks located at the same position on each platter surface. When all
read/write heads are aligned on the same track number, they form a cylinder.
●​ Access Time: The amount of time it takes for a computer to retrieve data from memory or
storage. It includes seek time, rotational latency, and data transfer time.

38. What are optical storage devices? Name some of them.

Optical storage devices use lasers to read and write data on discs made of plastic and metal. The
most common types include:

●​ CD (Compact Disc): Stores up to 700MB of data.

●​ DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): Stores up to 4.7GB on a single layer.
●​ Blu-ray Disc: Stores up to 25GB on a single layer. These devices are commonly used for
music, movies, software, and data backup.

39. List the advantages and disadvantages of optical storage devices.

●​ Advantages:
 ○​ Portable and lightweight
○​ Inexpensive to produce
○​ Resistant to magnetic fields
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Slower read/write speeds compared to HDD/SSD
○​ Easily scratched or damaged
○​ Limited storage capacity

40. What is a USB flash drive?

A USB flash drive is a small, portable storage device that uses flash memory and connects to a
computer via a USB port. It is used for transferring and storing data. Flash drives are durable,
rewritable, and can store several gigabytes of data.

41. Write the features of a USB flash drive.

●​ Compact and lightweight

●​ Plug-and-play functionality
●​ High storage capacity (up to several TBs)
●​ Fast read/write speeds
●​ Durable and shock-resistant
●​ Can be reused many times

42. What is a memory card? Where is it used? A memory card is a small storage device that uses
flash memory. It is used in portable electronic devices such as:

●​ Mobile phones
●​ Digital cameras
●​ Tablets
●​ Gaming consoles Examples include SD cards, microSD cards, and CompactFlash cards.

43. What is magnetic tape?

Magnetic tape is a storage medium that records data using magnetic patterns on a plastic strip
coated with magnetic material. It is used for data backup and archiving in large organizations due to
its high capacity and low cost.

44. Describe the use of magnetic tape in today’s world.

Magnetic tape is still used for:

●​ Backing up large volumes of data

●​ Archiving historical records
●​ Disaster recovery systems Although slower than modern storage devices, it is reliable for
long-term storage.

Q4. What are I/O devices? Explain their functions.

Answer:

I/O devices, or Input/Output devices, are hardware components that help the computer system
receive data (input) from the user and deliver information (output) back to the user. These devices
act as a bridge between the user and the computer system.

Types of I/O Devices:

1. Input Devices:

These are used to enter data and instructions into the computer.

●​ Keyboard – Used to type text and commands.​

●​ Mouse – Used to select and interact with items on the screen.​

●​ Scanner – Converts physical documents into digital form.​

●​ Microphone – Captures sound input.​

●​ Webcam – Captures live images or videos.​

2. Output Devices:

These devices are used to display or produce the output generated by the computer.

●​ Monitor – Displays text, images, and videos.​

●​ Printer – Produces a hard copy of digital documents.​

●​ Speakers – Output sound or audio.​

●​ Projector – Displays content on a large screen.​

3. Input/Output (Both):

Some devices can perform both input and output operations.

●​ Touchscreen – Accepts touch input and displays output on the same screen.​

●​ Modem – Sends and receives data over the internet.​

Q5. What are storage devices? Explain the types with examples.
Answer:

Storage devices are used to store data, instructions, and information either temporarily or
permanently. They are essential for holding data before, during, and after processing.

Types of Storage Devices:

1. Primary Storage (Main Memory):

This type of storage is directly accessed by the CPU. It stores data temporarily and is essential for
the computer’s functioning.

●​ RAM (Random Access Memory): Stores data temporarily while the computer is running.
Data is lost when the system is turned off.​

●​ ROM (Read Only Memory): Stores permanent instructions like the system’s boot process.
Data is not lost when power is off.​

2. Secondary Storage (Permanent Storage):

This storage is used to store data for a long time. It is not directly accessed by the CPU and is used
for backup and archival purposes.

●​ Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Commonly used for storing the operating system, software, and files.​

●​ Solid State Drive (SSD): Faster and more reliable than HDDs.​

●​ CD/DVD: Optical discs used to store media and software.​

●​ USB Flash Drive: Portable storage device.​

●​ Memory Card: Used in smartphones and cameras.​

Difference between Primary and Secondary Storage:

Feature Primary Storage Secondary Storage

Speed Primary Storage Devices are Very On the other hand, the secondary
fast storage devices are Slower

Volatility Primary storage devices are Volatile Secondary storage devices are
(RAM) Non-volatile

Access Primary storage devices are directly Indirect via I/O devices
accessed by the CPU

Example RAM, ROM HDD, SSD, USB, CD

Q6. What is software? Explain its types and functions.

Answer:

Software is a set of programs or instructions that tell a computer how to perform specific tasks.
Unlike hardware, software cannot be touched physically. It controls the overall operation of the
computer system and allows users to interact with the hardware.

Types of Software:

1. System Software:

System software helps in managing the hardware components and provides a platform for other
software to run.

●​ Operating System (OS): Manages hardware and software resources (e.g., Windows, Linux).​

●​ Utility Software: Performs specific tasks like virus scanning, file management, etc.​

●​ Device Drivers: Help the OS communicate with hardware devices like printers or keyboards.​

2. Application Software:

Application software is designed to perform specific tasks for users.

●​ MS Word: Used for writing documents.​

●​ Excel:
 ●​ Used for calculations and
Feature System Software Application
data analysis.​
Software

●​ Web Browsers: Like

Purpose Manages system Performs user tasks Chrome and Firefox, used to
operations browse the internet.​

Dependen Needed for running the Optional ●​ Media Players: Used to

cy system play audio and video files.​

Examples Windows, Linux, Drivers Word, Excel, VLC

Difference between System
and Application Software:​

Question: What are Storage Devices? Explain the types of storage devices with
examples.

Answer:

Storage Devices are hardware components that are used to store digital data permanently or temporarily.
These devices are essential for storing the operating system, software, and user files such as documents,
videos, and images.

Storage devices are mainly categorized into two types:

1. Primary Storage (Main Memory)

Primary storage refers to the memory that is directly accessed by the CPU. It holds data and instructions
that are actively being used during processing. It is fast but volatile, meaning it loses data when the power is
turned off.

Types of Primary Storage:

a) RAM (Random Access Memory):​

RAM is a temporary memory that stores data currently in use. It is volatile, so data is lost when the computer
shuts down. It allows applications and programs to run efficiently.

b) ROM (Read Only Memory):​

ROM is a non-volatile memory that stores permanent instructions required to start the computer, such as the
BIOS. The data in ROM cannot be easily modified.

c) Cache Memory:​
Cache is a small and very fast memory located close to the CPU. It stores frequently accessed data and
instructions to speed up processing time.

d) Registers:​
Registers are the fastest memory units present inside the CPU. They temporarily store data and instructions
currently being executed.

Characteristics of Primary Storage:

●​ Faster access speed​

●​ Smaller in size​

●​ Volatile in nature​

●​ Essential for running applications smoothly​

2. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage refers to non-volatile memory used for storing data permanently. It retains data even
when the computer is powered off. It is slower but has much larger capacity than primary storage.

Types of Secondary Storage Devices:

a) Hard Disk Drive (HDD):​

HDDs store data on magnetic spinning disks. They offer large storage capacity and are commonly used in
desktop computers and laptops.

b) Solid State Drive (SSD):​

SSDs use flash memory with no moving parts. They are faster and more durable than HDDs and help in
faster boot-up and data access.
c) Optical Discs (CD, DVD, Blu-ray):​
These discs store data using laser technology. They are used for distributing music, videos, and software,
although usage is declining.

d) USB Flash Drive:​

Also called pen drives, these are portable flash memory devices used to transfer files between computers.

e) Memory Cards:​
These are small flash memory devices used in mobile phones, digital cameras, and tablets for extra storage.

f) External Hard Drives:​

External HDDs or SSDs are used for data backup and portability. They are connected via USB or other
ports.

g) Cloud Storage:​
Cloud storage stores data on remote servers that can be accessed via the internet. Popular services include
Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Storage:

●​ Slower than primary memory​

●​ Non-volatile​

●​ Larger capacity​

●​ Used for long-term data storage and backup​

Computer Architecture

What is Computer Architecture?

Computer Architecture refers to the structure, organization, and functioning of a computer system. It is
the conceptual design that defines how the computer system is built and how it operates. This includes the
design of the Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory units, input and output devices, and how they
communicate with each other.

Computer architecture plays a crucial role in determining the performance and efficiency of a computer. It is
like the blueprint of a computer that defines how each component works together to process data and execute
instructions.
Block Diagram of a Computer System
A basic computer system consists of four main units: Input Unit, CPU, Memory Unit, and Output Unit. These
components are interconnected and work together to perform tasks.

The Main Components Of Computer Architecture:

1.​ Input Unit:​

This unit consists of devices like keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, etc., which are used to
enter data and instructions into the computer. The input unit converts human-readable data into a
machine-readable format and sends it to the CPU for processing.​

2.​ Central Processing Unit (CPU): ​

Often referred to as the brain of the computer, the CPU is responsible for processing all data and
instructions. It performs calculations, logical operations, and controls the flow of information within
the computer. The CPU itself consists of three important components: ALU, CU, and Memory Unit.​

3.​ Memory Unit:​

This unit stores data, instructions, and intermediate results. Memory is essential for the operation of
the computer as it holds information both temporarily and permanently, depending on the type of
memory.​

4.​ Output Unit:​

Output devices like monitor, printer, speakers, etc., are used to display or produce the final result
after processing. The output unit converts machine-readable data into a human-understandable form.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is divided into three main sub-units:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 ●​ The ALU performs all the mathematical (arithmetic) operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.​

●​ It also performs logical operations such as comparing two values, checking conditions (greater than,
less than, equal to), and making decisions based on them.​

●​ Whenever the computer needs to process numbers or logical conditions, the ALU handles the task.​

●​ It works under the instructions of the Control Unit.​

2. Control Unit (CU):

●​ The Control Unit acts like a traffic controller inside the computer. It manages the execution of
instructions by directing the operations of the ALU, memory, and input/output devices.​

●​ It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them to understand what needs to be done, and then
executes them by sending the correct control signals to other parts of the system.​

●​ The CU does not store any data but is responsible for coordinating and managing all activities in the
computer.​

3. Memory Unit:

●​ The memory unit stores data and instructions that the computer is currently using.​

●​ It is divided into two types:​

○​ Primary Memory (RAM and ROM): Used for fast and temporary storage of active data and
instructions.​

○​ Secondary Memory (Hard Disk, SSD, etc.): Used for long-term data storage.​

●​ The memory unit supplies data to the CPU whenever it is required and also stores the results of
operations.​

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a special type of high-speed memory located very close to the CPU or even inside the
CPU chip itself. It is used to temporarily store frequently accessed data and instructions so that the CPU
can access them quickly without going to the slower main memory (RAM).
Features of Cache Memory:

●​ Very fast compared to main memory.​

●​ Small in size, usually measured in MBs.​

●​ Helps to reduce the time taken by the CPU to access data.​

●​ Improves the overall performance and speed of the system.​

Q: What is Memory Unit? Explain its types in detail. Also explain RAM and ROM with
their types.

Answer:

What is Memory Unit?

The Memory Unit is a part of the computer that stores data, instructions, and results. It is essential for the
computer's operation because it provides space for the CPU to store and retrieve data quickly.

There are two main types of memory in a computer:

1.​ Primary Memory (Main Memory)​

2.​ Secondary Memory (Storage)​

1. Primary Memory
Primary memory is the main memory of a computer that works directly with the CPU. It is fast but limited in
size.

It stores:

●​ Operating system (OS)​

●​ Currently running programs​

●​ Data being used during processing​

Types of Primary Memory:

●​ RAM (Random Access Memory)​

●​ ROM (Read-Only Memory)​

RAM – Random Access Memory

●​ RAM is a temporary memory or volatile memory.​

●​ It stores data and programs currently being used.​

●​ When the power goes off, data in RAM is lost.​

●​ RAM is used for fast access and quick read/write operations.​

Types of RAM:

1.​ Static RAM (SRAM):​

○​ Faster than DRAM​

○​ Does not need to be refreshed​

○​ Expensive​

○​ Used in cache memory​

2.​ Dynamic RAM (DRAM):​

○​ Slower than SRAM​

○​ Needs to be refreshed continuously​

○​ Cheaper and used as main RAM​

ROM – Read Only Memory

●​ ROM is a permanent memory or non-volatile memory.​

●​ Data is pre-written and cannot be changed easily.​

 ●​ It stores startup programs like BIOS (Basic Input Output System).​

●​ Data in ROM remains even when the computer is turned off.​

Types of ROM:

1.​ PROM (Programmable ROM):​

○​ Can be programmed once after manufacturing​

○​ Data cannot be changed later​

2.​ EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):​

○​ Can be erased using UV light and reprogrammed​

3.​ EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):​

○​ Can be erased and reprogrammed using electric signals​

○​ Used in modern BIOS chips

SHORT QUESTIONS (1 page)

Q1: What is RAM?

Answer:​
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is a type of volatile memory that stores data and programs that
are currently being used. The data in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off.

Q2: What is ROM?

Answer:​
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is a non-volatile memory that stores permanent instructions, such
as the BIOS. Data in ROM is not lost even after shutting down the computer.

Q3: What are the types of RAM?

Answer:

●​ SRAM (Static RAM): Fast and expensive; used for cache.​

 ●​ DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Slower but cheaper; used as main memory.​

Ports
Ports are the interface points where external devices can be connected to the computer. They allow the CPU
to communicate with input and output devices, such as a keyboard, mouse, printer, and external storage.

Functions of Ports:

●​ Allow data transfer between the computer and external devices.​

●​ Enable the user to expand the computer’s functionality.​

●​ Provide a standard connection for different types of hardware.​

Types of Ports:

1.​ USB (Universal Serial Bus):​

Most commonly used for connecting pen drives, printers, cameras, etc.​

2.​ HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface):​

Used for transmitting high-quality audio and video signals to displays.​

3.​ Ethernet Port:​

Used to connect the computer to a network using a wired connection.​

4.​ VGA and Display Ports:​

Used to connect monitors and projectors.​

5.​ Audio Ports:​

Used for connecting microphones, speakers, and headphones.

Q1: What is the function of the ALU in a computer system?

Answer:​
The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) performs all arithmetic operations (like addition and subtraction) and logical
operations (like comparing two values). It executes these operations based on instructions from the control
unit.

Q2: What does the Control Unit (CU) do in a computer?

Answer:​
The CU controls the flow of data within the computer. It fetches, decodes, and executes instructions, and
sends signals to all other components to perform specific tasks.

Q3: What is the role of memory in a computer system?

Answer:​
Memory stores data and instructions required during processing. It also keeps the intermediate results and
final output temporarily or permanently depending on the memory type.

Q4: What are the types of memory in a computer?

Answer:

●​ Primary Memory:​

○​ RAM (temporary)​

○​ ROM (permanent)​

●​ Secondary Memory:​

○​ Hard Disk​

○​ SSD​

○​ USB Drives​

○​ CDs/DVDs​

Q5: What is a block diagram of a computer system?

Answer:​
It is a visual representation showing the basic structure and components of a computer, including Input Unit,
CPU (ALU, CU, Memory), and Output Unit. It helps to understand the working process of a computer.

Data Representation. (Conversion of Number System)

LONG QUESTION (2 Pages)

Q: What is Data Representation in computers? Explain the number systems used and
how to convert between them.

Answer:

What is Data Representation?

In computers, data representation refers to the method of storing and processing data using numbers,
especially binary numbers (0s and 1s). Since computers are digital, they can only understand binary values.

All types of data—whether text, numbers, images, or audio—are converted into binary so that a computer
can store, process, and transmit them.

Number Systems Used in Data Representation

There are four main number systems:

Number Base Digits Example

System Used

Binary 2 0, 1 10101

Decimal 10 0 to 9 250

Octal 8 0 to 7 345

Hexadecimal 16 0–9, A–F 3F, 1A2

Number System Conversions

1. Decimal to Binary Conversion

Method:

●​ Divide the number by 2.​

●​ Write the remainder.​

●​ Repeat with the quotient until it becomes 0.​

 ●​ Read the remainders in reverse order.​

Example:​
Convert 13 to binary:​
13 ÷ 2 = 6 → R1​
6 ÷ 2 = 3 → R0​
3 ÷ 2 = 1 → R1​
1 ÷ 2 = 0 → R1

Binary = 1101

2. Binary to Decimal Conversion

Method:

●​ Multiply each bit by 2 raised to its position (right to left, starting from 0).​

●​ Add the results.​

Example:​
Binary: 1101​
= (1×2³) + (1×2²) + (0×2¹) + (1×2⁰)​
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13

3. Decimal to Octal Conversion

Method:

●​ Divide the number by 8 repeatedly.​

●​ Record the remainders.​

●​ Read in reverse.​

Example:​
Decimal 65​
65 ÷ 8 = 8 → R1​
8 ÷ 8 = 1 → R0​
1 ÷ 8 = 0 → R1​
Octal = 101

4. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Method:

●​ Divide the decimal number by 16.​

●​ Convert remainders to Hex digits (A=10, B=11, ..., F=15).​

●​ Read in reverse.​

Example:​
Decimal 26​
26 ÷ 16 = 1 → R10 (A)​
1 ÷ 16 = 0 → R1​
Hexadecimal = 1A

5. Binary to Hexadecimal

Method:

●​ Group binary in sets of 4 (from right).​

●​ Convert each group to hex.​

Example:​
Binary: 10110110​
Groups: 1011 (B), 0110 (6)​
Hex = B6

📗 SHORT QUESTIONS (1 Page)

Q1: What is Data Representation?

Answer:​
Data representation means expressing data such as numbers, letters, and symbols in a format that a
computer can understand—mainly using binary numbers (0s and 1s).

Q2: What is a Number System?

Answer:​
A number system is a method to represent numbers using a specific base. For example, the binary system
uses base 2 and digits 0 and 1.
Q3: What are the types of number systems?

Answer:

●​ Binary (Base 2): Digits 0, 1​

●​ Decimal (Base 10): Digits 0–9​

●​ Octal (Base 8): Digits 0–7​

●​ Hexadecimal (Base 16): Digits 0–9, A–F​

Q4: Convert Decimal 18 to Binary.

Answer:

18 ÷ 2 = 9 → R0​
9 ÷ 2 = 4 → R1​
4 ÷ 2 = 2 → R0​
2 ÷ 2 = 1 → R0​
1 ÷ 2 = 0 → R1

Binary = 10010

Q5: Convert Binary 1010 to Decimal.

Answer:​
(1×2³) + (0×2²) + (1×2¹) + (0×2⁰)​
= 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 10