TEMPERATURE MONITORING ROBOT

1. INTRODUCTION
 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

2. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
 MICROCONTROLLER
 Led PANNEL
  POWER SUPPLY
 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
 WORKING DESCRIPTION

4. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
 KEIL COMPILER
 PROGRAM

INTRODUCTION

An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a

dedicated task.
An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific
focused job. Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player,
printer, fax machine, mobile phone etc. are examples of embedded systems. Each of
these appliances will have a processor and special hardware to meet the specific
requirement of the application along with the embedded software that is executed by
the processor for meeting that specific requirement. The embedded software is also
called “firm ware”. The desktop/laptop computer is a general purpose computer. You
can use it for a variety of applications such as playing games, word processing,
accounting, software development and so on. In contrast, the software in the
embedded systems is always fixed listed below:

· Embedded systems do a very specific task, they cannot be programmed to do

different things. Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the
memory. Generally, they do not have secondary storage devices such as the
CDROM or the floppy disk. Embedded systems have to work against some
deadlines. A specific job has to be completed within a specific time. In some
embedded systems, called real-time systems, the deadlines are stringent. Missing a
deadline may cause a catastrophe-loss of life or damage to property. Embedded
systems are constrained for power. As many embedded systems operate through a
battery, the power consumption has to be very low.
· Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions
such as very high temperatures and humidity.

Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they
simply accept the inputs, process it and give the output.
In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts the data as inputs but also manipulates
it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the data and thus finally gives the
result.
All these tasks are possible with the microcontroller because the microcontroller has a
CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and timer all on a single
chip. This fixed amount of RAM, ROM and number of I/O ports in microcontroller
makes them ideal for many applications where cost and space are critical.
 TEMPERATURE MONITORING ROBOT

ABSTRACT

This project is a standalone digital temperature meter that also controls the
temperature of the heating element of a device according to its requirement. Use of
embedded technology makes this closed loop feedback control system efficient and
reliable. Micro controller (AT89C51) allows dynamic and faster control. Push button
switches and liquid crystal display (LCD) make the system user-friendly. The sensed
and set temperature values are simultaneously displayed on the LCD panel. The
circuit is programmed for 'on'/ 'off control. It is very compact using few components
and can be implemented for several applications including air-conditioners, water-
heaters, snow-melters, ovens, heat-exchangers, mixers, furnaces, incubators, thermal
baths and veterinary operating tables. AT89C51 micro controller is the heart of the
circuit as it controls all the functions.

The temperature sensor LM35 senses the temperature and converts it into an
electrical signal, which is applied to the micro controller through ADC. The analog
signal is converted into digital format by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The
sensed and set values of the temperature are displayed on the 16x2-line LCD. The
micro controller drives a transistor to control the heating element with the help of an
electromagnetic relay. The set temperature value can be varied from 1C to 255C using
an external PCB mount push on switch

This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal
voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used
to rectify the ac out put of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer. This project
is useful in process industries for maintenance and controlling of Boilers temperature.

Block Diagram:

Temp Sensor

Heating
Element
ADC

Transistor
based
Driver Buzzer
Transistor Circuit
based
Driver AT89S51
MCU
Crystal
 LED
Reset Indicator
circuit

Step Bridge Filter

down Rectifier Circuit Regulator
T/F Power supply to all sections

2. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

MICROCONTROLLERS:

Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded

systems products. Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a
CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all
on a single chip. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in
microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost and space are
critical.
 The Intel 8051 is a Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (µC)
which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in
the 1980s and early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of
enhanced devices with 8051-compatible processor cores that are manufactured by
more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies and
Maxim Integrated Products.

8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of
data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be
processed by the CPU. 8051 is available in different memory types such as UV-
EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM.

The microcontroller used in this project is AT89S52. Atmel Corporation

introduced this 89S52 microcontroller. This microcontroller belongs to 8051 family.
This microcontroller had 256 bytes of RAM, 8K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers,
one serial port and four ports (each 8-bits wide) all on a single chip.

The present project is implemented on Keil Uvision. In order to program the

device, Proload tool has been used to burn the program onto the microcontroller.

The features, pin description of the microcontroller and the software tools used
are discussed in the following sections.

Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems

products. Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in
addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a
single chip. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in
microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost and space are
critical.

The Intel 8051 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (µC) which
was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the
1980s and early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of
enhanced devices with 8051-compatible processor cores that are manufactured by
more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies and
Maxim Integrated Products.

8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of
data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be
processed by the CPU. 8051 is available in different memory types such as UV-
EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM.

The present project is implemented on Keil Uvision. In order to program the

device, Proload tool has been used to burn the program onto the microcontroller.

The features, pin description of the microcontroller and the software tools used
are discussed in the following sections.
FEATURES OF AT89s52:

 8K Bytes of Re-programmable Flash Memory.

 RAM is 256 bytes.
 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range.
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz’s
 Three-level Program Memory Lock.
 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM.
 32 Programmable I/O Lines.
 Three 16-bit Timer/Counters.
 Eight Interrupt Sources.
 Full Duplex UART Serial Channel.
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes.
 Interrupt recovery from power down mode.
 Watchdog timer.
 Dual data pointer.
 Power-off flag.
 Fast programming time.
 Flexible ISP programming (byte and page mode).

Description:

The AT89s52 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with

8K bytes of Flash programmable memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-
standard MCS-51 instruction set. The on chip flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in system or by a conventional non volatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89s52
is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective
solution to many embedded control applications.

In addition, the AT89s52 is designed with static logic for operation down to
zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle
Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and
interrupt system to continue
functioning. The
power- down mode saves
the RAM contents but
freezes the oscillator
disabling all other chip
functions until the next
hardware reset.
Fig: Pin diagram
 Fig: Block diagram

PIN DESCRIPTION:
Vcc Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5V.

GND Pin 20 is the ground.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high
impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order
address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode,
P0 has internal pull-ups.

Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code
bytes during Program verification. External pull-ups are required during program
verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2
external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX),
respectively, as shown in the following table.

Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and
verification.

Port 2
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull-ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program
memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses
(MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when
emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses
(MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. The
port also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.

Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.
Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown
in the following table.
RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog
times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this
feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input
(PROG) during Flash programming.

In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency
and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one
ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory.

If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With
the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the
pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the
microcontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN

Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When
the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated
twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each
access to external data memory.

EA/VPP

External Access Enable:

EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external
program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if
lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives
the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Connections

C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

External Clock Drive Configuration

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or
ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source,
XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no
requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the
internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and
maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.
Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space
is shown in the following table.

It should be noted that not all of the addresses are occupied and unoccupied addresses
may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general
return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect.

User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used
in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of
the new bits will always be 0.

Timer 2 Registers:

Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON and T2MOD for Timer 2.
The register pair (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the Capture/Reload register for Timer 2 in
16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode.

Interrupt Registers:

The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can be set for
each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.
Dual Data Pointer Registers:

To facilitate accessing both internal and external data memory, two banks of 16-bit
Data Pointer Registers are provided: DP0 at SFR address locations 82H-83H and DP1
at 84H and 85H. Bit DPS = 0 in SFR AUXR1 selects DP0 and DPS = 1 selects DP1.
The user should ALWAYS initialize the DPS bit to the appropriate value before
accessing the respective Data Pointer Register.

Power Off Flag:

The Power Off Flag (POF) is located at bit 4 (PCON.4) in the PCON SFR. POF is set
to “1” during power up. It can be set and rest under software control and is not
affected by reset.
Memory Organization

MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to
64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.

Program Memory

If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external
memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses
0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses
2000H through FFFFH are to external memory.

Data Memory

The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a
parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper
128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from
SFR space.

When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address
mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes
of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access the SFR
space.
For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location
0A0H (which is P2).

MOV 0A0H, #data

Instructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For
example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H,
accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H).

MOV @R0, #data

Note that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes
of data RAM are available as stack space.

Watchdog Timer (One-time Enabled with Reset-out)

The WDT is intended as a recovery method in situations where the CPU may be
subjected to software upsets. The WDT consists of a 14-bit counter and the Watchdog
Timer Reset (WDTRST) SFR. The WDT is defaulted to disable from exiting reset. To
enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the WDTRST
register (SFR location 0A6H).

When the WDT is enabled, it will increment every machine cycle while the oscillator
is running. The WDT timeout period is dependent on the external clock frequency.
There is no way to disable the WDT except through reset (either hardware reset or
WDT overflow reset). When WDT overflows, it will drive an output RESET HIGH
pulse at the RST pin.

Using the WDT

 To enable the WDT, a user must write 01EH and 0E1H in sequence to the
WDTRST register (SFR location 0A6H). When the WDT is enabled, the user needs to
service it by writing 01EH and 0E1H to WDTRST to avoid a WDT overflow. The 14-
bit counter overflows when it reaches 16383 (3FFFH), and this will reset the device.
When the WDT is enabled, it will increment every machine cycle while the oscillator
is running. This means the user must reset the WDT at least every 16383 machine
cycles.

To reset the WDT the user must write 01EH and 0E1H to WDTRST.
WDTRST is a write-only register. The WDT counter cannot be read or written. When
WDT overflows, it will generate an output RESET pulse at the RST pin. The RESET
pulse duration is 98xTOSC, where TOSC = 1/FOSC. To make the best use of the
WDT, it should be serviced in those sections of code that will periodically be
executed within the time required to prevent a WDT reset.

WDT during Power-down and Idle

In Power-down mode the oscillator stops, which means the WDT also stops. While in
Power down mode, the user does not need to service the WDT. There are two
methods of exiting Power-down mode: by a hardware reset or via a level-activated
external interrupt which is enabled prior to entering Power-down mode. When Power-
down is exited with hardware reset, servicing the WDT should occur as it normally
does whenever the AT89S52 is reset. Exiting Power-down with an interrupt is
significantly different.

The interrupt is held low long enough for the oscillator to stabilize. When the
interrupt is brought high, the interrupt is serviced. To prevent the WDT from resetting
the device while the interrupt pin is held low, the WDT is not started until the
interrupt is pulled high. It is suggested that the WDT be reset during the interrupt
service for the interrupt used to exit Power-down mode.

To ensure that the WDT does not overflow within a few states of exiting Power-
down, it is best to reset the WDT just before entering Power-down mode.
Before going into the IDLE mode, the WDIDLE bit in SFR AUXR is used to
determine whether the WDT continues to count if enabled. The WDT keeps counting
during IDLE (WDIDLE bit = 0) as the default state. To prevent the WDT from
resetting the AT89S52 while in IDLE mode, the user should always set up a timer that
will periodically exit IDLE, service the WDT, and reenter IDLE mode. With
WDIDLE bit enabled, the WDT will stop to count in IDLE mode and resumes the
count upon exit from IDLE.

UART

The Atmel 80C51 Microcontrollers implement three general purpose, 16-bit timers/
counters. They are identified as Timer 0, Timer 1 and Timer 2 and can be
independently configured to operate in a variety of modes as a timer or as an event
counter. When operating as a timer, the timer/counter runs for a programmed length
of time and then issues an interrupt request. When operating as a counter, the
timer/counter counts negative transitions on an external pin. After a preset number of
counts, the counter issues an interrupt request. The various operating modes of each
timer/counter are described in the following sections.

A basic operation consists of timer registers THx and TLx (x= 0, 1) connected in
cascade
to form a 16-bit timer. Setting the run control bit (TRx) in TCON register turns the
timer on by allowing the selected input to increment TLx. When TLx overflows it
increments THx; when THx overflows it sets the timer overflow flag (TFx) in TCON
register. Setting the TRx does not clear the THx and TLx timer registers. Timer
registers can be accessed to obtain the current count or to enter preset values. They
can be read at any time but TRx bit must be cleared to preset their values, otherwise
the behavior of the timer/counter is unpredictable.

The C/Tx# control bit (in TCON register) selects timer operation, or counter
operation, by selecting the divided-down peripheral clock or external pin Tx as the
source for the counted signal. TRx bit must be cleared when changing the mode of
operation, otherwise the behavior of the timer/counter is unpredictable. For timer
operation (C/Tx# = 0), the timer register counts the divided-down peripheral clock.
The timer register is incremented once every peripheral cycle (6 peripheral clock
periods). The timer clock rate is FPER / 6, i.e. FOSC / 12 in standard mode or FOSC /
6 in X2 mode. For counter operation (C/Tx# = 1), the timer register counts the
negative transitions on the Tx external input pin. The external input is sampled every
peripheral cycle. When the sample is high in one cycle and low in the next one, the
counter is incremented.

Since it takes 2 cycles (12 peripheral clock periods) to recognize a negative transition,
the maximum count rate is FPER / 12, i.e. FOSC / 24 in standard mode or FOSC / 12
in X2 mode. There are no restrictions on the duty cycle of the external input signal,
but to
ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, it should be held
for
at least one full peripheral cycle. In addition to the “timer” or “counter” selection,
Timer 0 and Timer 1 have four operating modes from which to select which are
selected by bit-pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes 0, 1and 2 are the same for both
timer/counters. Mode 3 is different.

The four operating modes are described below. Timer 2, has three modes of
operation: ‘capture’, ‘auto-reload’ and ‘baud rate generator’.

Timer 0

Timer 0 functions as either a timer or event counter in four modes of operation.

Timer 0 is controlled by the four lower bits of the TMOD register and bits 0, 1, 4 and
5 of the TCON register. TMOD register selects the method of timer gating (GATE0),
timer or counter operation (T/C0#) and mode of operation (M10 and M00). The
TCON register provides timer 0 control functions: overflow flag (TF0), run control bit
(TR0), interrupt flag (IE0) and interrupt type control bit (IT0).
For normal timer operation (GATE0= 0), setting TR0 allows TL0 to be incremented
by the selected input. Setting GATE0 and TR0 allows external pin INT0# to control
timer
operation.

Timer 0 overflow (count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s) sets TF0 flag, generating an
interrupt request. It is important to stop timer/counter before changing mode.

Mode 0 (13-bit Timer)

Mode 0 configures timer 0 as a 13-bit timer which is set up as an 8-bit timer (TH0
register) with a modulo 32 prescaler implemented with the lower five bits of the TL0
register. The upper three bits of TL0 register are indeterminate and should be ignored.
Prescaler overflow increments the TH0 register.

As the count rolls over from all 1’s to all 0’s, it sets the timer interrupt flag TF0. The
counted input is enabled to the Timer when TR0 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or INT0 =
1. (Setting GATE = 1 allows the Timer to be controlled by external input INT0, to
facilitate pulse width measurements). TR0 is a control bit in the Special Function
register TCON. GATE is in TMOD.

The 13-bit register consists of all 8 bits of TH0 and the lower 5 bits of TL0. The upper
3
bits of TL0 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run flag (TR0) does
not
clear the registers.

Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1. There are two different
GATE bits, one for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for Timer 0 (TMOD.3).

Timer/Counter x (x = 0 or 1) in Mode 0
Mode 1 (16-bit Timer)
Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is being run with all 16
bits. Mode 1 configures timer 0 as a 16-bit timer with the TH0 and TL0 registers
connected in cascade. The selected input increments the TL0 register.

Timer/Counter x (x = 0 or 1) in Mode 1

Mode 2 (8-bit Timer with Auto-Reload)

Mode 2 configures timer 0 as an 8-bit timer (TL0 register) that automatically reloads
from the TH0 register. TL0 overflow sets TF0 flag in the TCON register and reloads
TL0 with the contents of TH0, which is preset by software.

When the interrupt request is serviced, hardware clears TF0. The reload leaves TH0
unchanged. The next reload value may be changed at any time by writing it to the
TH0 register. Mode 2 operation is the same for Timer/Counter 1.

Timer/Counter x (x = 0 or 1) in Mode 2
Mode 3 (Two 8-bit Timers)
Mode 3 configures timer 0 so that registers TL0 and TH0 operate as separate 8-bit
timers. This mode is provided for applications requiring an additional 8-bit timer or
counter. TL0 uses the timer 0 control bits C/T0# and GATE0 in the TMOD register,
and TR0 and TF0 in the TCON register in the normal manner. TH0 is locked into a
timer function (counting FPER /6) and takes over use of the timer 1 interrupt (TF1)
and run control (TR1) bits. Thus, operation of timer 1 is restricted when timer 0 is in
mode 3.

Timer/Counter 0 in Mode 3: Two 8-bit Counters

Timer 1
Timer 1 is identical to timer 0, except for mode 3, which is a hold-count mode. The
following comments help to understand the differences:
• Timer 1 functions as either a timer or event counter in three modes of operation.
Timer
1’s mode 3 is a hold-count mode.
• Timer 1 is controlled by the four high-order bits of the TMOD register and bits 2, 3,
6 and 7 of the TCON register. The TMOD register selects the method of timer gating
(GATE1), timer or counter operation (C/T1#) and mode of operation (M11 and M01).
The TCON register provides timer 1 control functions: overflow flag (TF1), run
control bit (TR1), interrupt flag (IE1) and interrupt type control bit (IT1).
• Timer 1 can serve as the baud rate generator for the serial port. Mode 2 is best suited
for this purpose.
• For normal timer operation (GATE1 = 0), setting TR1 allows TL1 to be incremented
by the selected input. Setting GATE1 and TR1 allows external pin INT1# to control
timer operation.
• Timer 1 overflow (count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s) sets the TF1 flag generating
an interrupt request.
• When timer 0 is in mode 3, it uses timer 1’s overflow flag (TF1) and run control bit
(TR1). For this situation, use timer 1 only for applications that do not require an
interrupt (such as a baud rate generator for the serial port) and switch timer 1 in and
out of mode 3 to turn it off and on.
• It is important to stop timer/counter before changing modes.

Mode 0 (13-bit Timer)

Mode 0 configures Timer 1 as a 13-bit timer, which is set up as an 8-bit timer (TH1
register) with a modulo-32 prescaler implemented with the lower 5 bits of the TL1
register. The upper 3 bits of the TL1 register are ignored. Prescaler overflow
increments the TH1 register.

Mode 1 (16-bit Timer)

Mode 1 configures Timer 1 as a 16-bit timer with the TH1 and TL1 registers
connected
in cascade. The selected input increments the TL1 register.

Mode 2 (8-bit Timer with Auto Reload)

Mode 2 configures Timer 1 as an 8-bit timer (TL1 register) with automatic reload
from
the TH1 register on overflow. TL1 overflow sets the TF1 flag in the TCON register
and reloads TL1 with the contents of TH1, which is preset by software. The reload
leaves TH1 unchanged.
Mode 3 (Halt)
Placing Timer 1 in mode 3 causes it to halt and hold its count. This can be used to halt
Timer 1 when TR1 run control bit is not available i.e., when Timer 0 is in mode 3.

Timer 2
Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event
counter. The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in
Table 5-2). Timer 2 has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down
counting), and baud rate generator. The modes are selected by bits in T2CON, as
shown in Table 10-1. Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit registers, TH2 and TL2. In the
Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine cycle. Since a machine
cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator
frequency.
In the Counter function, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition
at its corresponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is
sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one
cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value
appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the
transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required
to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator
frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the
level should be held for at least one full machine cycle.

Capture Mode

In the capture mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 =
0, Timer 2 is a 16-bit timer or counter which upon overflow sets bit TF2 in T2CON.
This bit can then be used to generate an interrupt. If EXEN2 = 1, Timer 2 performs
the same operation, but a 1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX also causes the
current value in TH2 and TL2 to be captured into RCAP2H and RCAP2L,
respectively. In addition, the transition at T2EX causes bit EXF2 in T2CON to be set.
The EXF2 bit, like TF2, can generate an interrupt.
 Timer in Capture Mode

Auto-reload (Up or Down Counter)

Timer 2 can be programmed to count up or down when configured in its 16-bit auto-
reload mode. This feature is invoked by the DCEN (Down Counter Enable) bit
located in the SFR T2MOD. Upon reset, the DCEN bit is set to 0 so that timer 2 will
default to count up. When DCEN is set, Timer 2 can count up or down, depending on
the value of the T2EX pin.

T2MOD – Timer 2 Mode Control Register

The above figure shows Timer 2 automatically counting up when DCEN = 0. In this
mode, two options are selected by bit EXEN2 in T2CON. If EXEN2 = 0, Timer 2
counts up to 0FFFFH and then sets the TF2 bit upon overflow. The overflow also
causes the timer registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and
RCAP2L. The values in Timer in Capture ModeRCAP2H and RCAP2L are preset by
software. If EXEN2 = 1, a 16-bit reload can be triggered either by an overflow or by a
1-to-0 transition at external input T2EX. This transition also sets the EXF2 bit. Both
the TF2 and EXF2 bits can generate an interrupt if enabled.

Setting the DCEN bit enables Timer 2 to count up or down, as shown in Figure 10-2.
In this mode, the T2EX pin controls the direction of the count. A logic 1 at T2EX
makes Timer 2 count up. The timer will overflow at 0FFFFH and set the TF2 bit. This
overflow also causes the 16-bit value in RCAP2H and RCAP2L to be reloaded into
the timer registers, TH2 and TL2, respectively.

A logic 0 at T2EX makes Timer 2 count down. The timer underflows when TH2 and
TL2 equal the values stored in RCAP2H and RCAP2L. The underflow sets the TF2
bit and causes 0FFFFH to be reloaded into the timer registers.

The EXF2 bit toggles whenever Timer 2 overflows or underflows and can be used as
a 17th bit of resolution. In this operating mode, EXF2 does not flag an interrupt.
Baud Rate Generator

Timer 2 is selected as the baud rate generator by setting TCLK and/or RCLK in
T2CON. Note that the baud rates for transmit and receive can be different if Timer 2
is used for the receiver or transmitter and Timer 1 is used for the other function.
Setting RCLK and/or TCLK puts Timer 2 into its baud rate generator mode.

The baud rate generator mode is similar to the auto-reload mode, in that a rollover in
TH2 causes the Timer 2 registers to be reloaded with the 16-bit value in registers
RCAP2H and RCAP2L, which are preset by software.

The baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by Timer 2’s overflow rate according
to the following equation.

The Timer can be configured for either timer or counter operation. In most
applications, it is configured for timer operation (CP/T2 = 0). The timer operation is
different for Timer 2 when it is used as a baud rate generator. Normally, as a timer, it
increments every machine cycle (at 1/12 the oscillator frequency). As a baud rate
generator, however, it increments every state time (at 1/2 the oscillator frequency).
The baud rate formula is given below.
Where (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) is the content of RCAP2H and RCAP2L taken as a 16-
bit unsigned integer.

Timer 2 as a baud rate generator is shown in the below figure. This figure is valid
only if RCLK or TCLK = 1 in T2CON. Note that a rollover in TH2 does not set TF2
and will not generate an interrupt. Note too, that if EXEN2 is set, a 1-to-0 transition in
T2EX will set EXF2 but will not cause a reload from (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) to (TH2,
TL2). Thus, when Timer 2 is in use as a baud rate generator, T2EX can be used as an
extra external interrupt.

Note that when Timer 2 is running (TR2 = 1) as a timer in the baud rate generator
mode, TH2 or TL2 should not be read from or written to. Under these conditions, the
Timer is incremented every state time, and the results of a read or write may not be
accurate. The RCAP2 registers may be read but should not be written to, because a
write might overlap a reload and cause write and/or reload errors. The timer should be
turned off (clear TR2) before accessing the Timer 2 or RCAP2 registers.

Timer 2 in Baud Rate Generator Mode

Programmable Clock Out

A 50% duty cycle clock can be programmed to come out on P1.0, as shown in the
below figure. This pin, besides being a regular I/O pin, has two alternate functions. It
can be programmed to input the external clock for Timer/Counter 2 or to output a
50% duty cycle clock ranging from 61 Hz to 4 MHz (for a 16-MHz operating
frequency).

Timer 2 in Clock-Out Mode

To configure the Timer/Counter 2 as a clock generator, bit C/T2 (T2CON.1) must be

cleared and bit T2OE (T2MOD.1) must be set. Bit TR2 (T2CON.2) starts and stops
the timer. The clock-out frequency depends on the oscillator frequency and the reload
value of Timer 2 capture registers (RCAP2H, RCAP2L), as shown in the following
equation.
In the clock-out mode, Timer 2 roll-overs will not generate an interrupt. This behavior
is similar to when Timer 2 is used as a baud-rate generator. It is possible to use Timer
2 as a baud-rate generator and a clock generator simultaneously. Note, however, that
the baud rate and clock-out frequencies cannot be determined independently from one
another since they both use RCAP2H and RCAP2L.

Interrupts

The AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and
INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt. These
interrupts are all shown in Figure 13-1.

Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or

clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit,
EA, which disables all interrupts at once. Note that Table 13-1 shows that bit position
IE.6 is unimplemented. User software should not write a 1 to this bit position, since it
may be used in future AT89 products.

Timer 2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register
T2CON. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is
vectored to. In fact, the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or
EXF2 that generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software.

The Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which
the timers overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle.
However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in
which the timer overflows.
Idle Mode
In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on-chip peripherals remain
active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the
special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be
terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset.

Note that when idle mode is terminated by a hardware reset, the device normally
resumes program execution from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before
the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal
RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the
possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when idle mode is terminated by a
reset, the instruction following the one that invokes idle mode should not write to a
port pin or to external memory.

Power-down Mode

In the Power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes
Power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function
Registers retain their values until the Power-down mode is terminated. Exit from
Power down mode can be initiated either by a hardware reset or by an enabled
external interrupt. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM.
The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level
and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.

Status of External Pins During Idle and Power-down Modes

Program Memory Lock Bits

The AT89S52 has three lock bits that can be left un programmed (U) or can be
programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table.
 Lock Bit Protection Modes

When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin is sampled and latched
during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to a
random value and holds that value until reset is activated. The latched value of EA
must agree with the current logic level at that pin in order for the device to function
properly.
Programming the Flash – Parallel Mode
The AT89S52 is shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array ready to be
programmed. The programming interface needs a high-voltage (12-volt) program
enable signal and is compatible with conventional third-party Flash or EPROM
programmers.
The AT89S52 code memory array is programmed byte-by-byte.
Programming Algorithm:
Before programming the AT89S52, the address, data, and control signals should be
set up according to the “Flash Programming Modes”. To program the AT89S52, take
the following steps:

1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines.

2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines.

3. Activate the correct combination of control signals.

4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V.

5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The
byte write cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 50 µs. Repeat steps 1
through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the end of the
object file is reached.
Data Polling:

The AT89S52 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a byte write cycle. During a
write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of
the written data on P0.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data is valid
on all outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a
write cycle has been initiated.

Ready/Busy:

The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output
signal. P3.0 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate
BUSY. P3.0 is pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.

Program Verify:

If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code data can
be read back via the address and data lines for verification. The status of the
individual lock bits can be verified directly by reading them back.

Reading the Signature Bytes:

The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of
locations 000H, 100H, and 200H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic
low. The values returned are as follows.

(000H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel

(100H) = 52H indicates AT89S52

(200H) = 06H

Chip Erase:

In the parallel programming mode, a chip erase operation is initiated by using the
proper combination of control signals and by pulsing ALE/PROG low for a duration
of 200 ns - 500 ns.
In the serial programming mode, a chip erase operation is initiated by issuing the Chip
Erase instruction. In this mode, chip erase is self-timed and takes about 500 ms.
During chip erase, a serial read from any address location will return 00H at the data
output.

Programming the Flash – Serial Mode

The Code memory array can be programmed using the serial ISP interface while RST
is pulled to VCC. The serial interface consists of pins SCK, MOSI (input) and MISO
(output). After RST is set high, the Programming Enable instruction needs to be
executed first before other operations can be executed. Before a reprogramming
sequence can occur, a Chip Erase operation is required.

The Chip Erase operation turns the content of every memory location in the Code
array into FFH. Either an external system clock can be supplied at pin XTAL1 or a
crystal needs to be connected across pins XTAL1 and XTAL2. The maximum serial
clock (SCK) frequency should be less than 1/16 of the crystal frequency. With a 33
MHz oscillator clock, the maximum SCK frequency is 2 MHz.

Serial Programming Algorithm

To program and verify the AT89S52 in the serial programming mode, the following
sequence is recommended:

1. Power-up sequence:

a. Apply power between VCC and GND pins.

b. Set RST pin to “H”.

If a crystal is not connected across pins XTAL1 and XTAL2, apply a 3 MHz to 33
MHz clock to XTAL1 pin and wait for at least 10 milliseconds.

2. Enable serial programming by sending the Programming Enable serial

instruction to pin MOSI/P1.5. The frequency of the shift clock supplied at pin
SCK/P1.7 needs to be less than the CPU clock at XTAL1 divided by 16.
3. The Code array is programmed one byte at a time in either the Byte or Page mode.
The write cycle is self-timed and typically takes less than 0.5 ms at 5V.

4. Any memory location can be verified by using the Read instruction which returns
the content at the selected address at serial output MISO/P1.6.

5. At the end of a programming session, RST can be set low to commence normal
device operation.

Power-off sequence (if needed):

1. Set XTAL1 to “L” (if a crystal is not used).

2. Set RST to “L”.

3. Turn VCC power off.

Data Polling:

The Data Polling feature is also available in the serial mode. In this mode, during a
write cycle an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of
the MSB of the serial output byte on MISO.

Serial Programming Instruction Set

The Instruction Set for Serial Programming follows a 4-byte protocol and is shown in
the table given below.
 Serial Programming Instruction Set

Programming Interface – Parallel Mode

Every code byte in the Flash array can be programmed by using the appropriate
combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is self-timed and once
initiated, will automatically time itself to completion.
Flash Programming Modes
After Reset signal is high, SCK should be low for at least 64 system clocks before it
goes high to clock in the enable data bytes. No pulsing of Reset signal is necessary.
SCK should be no faster than 1/16 of the system clock at XTAL1.

For Page Read/Write, the data always starts from byte 0 to 255. After the command
byte and upper address byte are latched, each byte thereafter is treated as data until all
256 bytes are shifted in/out. Then the next instruction will be ready to be decoded.

LIGHT EMITING DIODES

It is a semiconductor diode having radioactive recombination .

It requires a definite amount of energy to generate an electron-

hole pair.
The same energy is released when an electron recombines with a hole.
This released energy may result in the emission of photon and such a
recombination. Hear the amount of energy released when the electro
reverts from the conduction band to the valence band appears in the form
of radiation. Alternatively the released energy may result in a series of
phonons causing lattice vibration. Finally the released energy may be
transferred to another electron. The recombination radiation may be lie in
the infra-red and visible light spectrum. In forward is peaked around the
band gap energy and the phenomenon is called injection luminescence. I
n a junction biased in the avalanche break down region , there results a
spectrum of photons carrying much higher energies . Almost White light
then gets emitted from micro-plasma breakdown region in silicon
junction. Diodes having radioactive recombination are termed as Light
Emitting Diode , abbreviated as LEDs.

In gallium arsenide diode , recombination is predominantly a

radiation recombination and the probability of this radioactive
recombination far exceeds that in either germanium or silicon . Hence
GaAs LED has much higher efficiency in terms of
Photons emitted per carrier. The internal efficiency of GaAs LED may ba
very close to 100% but because of high index of refraction, only a small
fraction of the internal radiation can usually come out of the device
surface. In spite of this low efficiency of actually radiated light , these
LEDs are efficiency used as light emitters in visual display units and in
optically coupled circuits, The efficiency of light generation increases
with the increase of injected current and with decreases in temperature.
The light so generated is concentrated near the junction since most of the
charge carriers are obtained within one diffusion length of the diode
junction.
 The following are the merits of LEDs over conventional
incandescent and other types of lamps

1. Low working voltages and currents

2. Less power consumption
3. Very fast action
4. Emission of monochromatic light
5. small size and weight
6. No effect of mechanical vibrations
7. Extremely long life
Typical LED uses a forward voltage of about 2V and current of
5 to 10mA.
GaAs LED produces infra-red light while red, green and orange lights are
produced by gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAs) and gallium phosphide(Gap) .

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Example: Circuit symbol:

Function

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a
or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The
cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If
you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode
(but this is not an official identification method).
 LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you

Testing an LED

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and
burn it out. LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for
quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage
is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

Colours of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and
white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours.

The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the

colouring of the 'package' (the plastic
body). LEDs of all colours are available
in uncoloured packages which may be
diffused (milky) or clear (often described
as 'water clear'). The coloured packages
are very
alsoslow. No special
available as precautions are
diffused (the
standard type) or transparent.
Tri-colour LEDs

The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined
in one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and
green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green
LEDs are on.

The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different
lengths of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs,
the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit
separately, or both together to give the third colour.
Bi-colour LEDs

A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one
backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit
at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.

Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The

'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is
probably the best type for general use, but 3mm round LEDs are also
popular. LED Clip
Photograph © Rapid Electronics
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install
on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to
hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes.
Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.

As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their
viewing angle. This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs
have a viewing angle of 60° but others have a narrow beam of 30° or less. Rapid
Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good
guidetotherangeavailable.

Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED,
otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.

:
The resistor value, R is given by

R = (VS - VL) / I

VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor
value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact
you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase
battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright.

. Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law

Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I,

where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)

I = the current through the resistor

So R = (VS - VL) / I

Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to
connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the
same current as just one LED.

All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are
all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V
for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To
work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this for
VL.

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between
them is generally not a good idea.

If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED
will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although
identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely
offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the
same as connecting the LEDs individually.

POWER SUPPLY:

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a
rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order
to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to
remove any a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given
to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.
 230V AC
50Hz D.C
Output

Step down Bridge

Regulator
transformer Rectifier Filter

Fig: Power supply

Transformer:

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and

these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly.
Thus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to
the required voltage level. This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down
transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required level.

Rectifier:

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into
pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project,
a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave
rectification.
Filter:

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output
of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until
the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is
varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at
the output stage.

Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage
regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. In this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to
obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first
number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required
output voltage levels.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

DESCRIPTION

A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power

supply, is one where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to
your requirements. Varying the output of the power supply is the
recommended way to test a project after having double checked parts
placement against circuit drawings and the parts placement guide.

This type of regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power
supply. Actually this is quite important because one of the first projects a
hobbyist should undertake is the construction of a variable regulated
power supply. While a dedicated supply is quite handy e.g. 5V or 12V,
it's much handier to have a variable supply on hand, especially for testing.

Most digital logic circuits and processors need a 5 volt power supply. To
use these parts we need to build a regulated 5 volt source. Usually you
start with an unregulated power supply ranging from 9 volts to 24 volts
DC (A 12 volt power supply is included with the Beginner Kit and the
Microcontroller Beginner Kit.). To make a 5 volt power supply, we use a
LM7805 voltage regulator IC (Integrated Circuit). The IC is shown

below.

The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of
your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to
the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then
when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the Output pin.

CIRCUIT FEATURES

 Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V

output, output current capability of 100 mA
 Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down
output when regulator IC gets too hot
 Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build
 Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable
operation
 Availability of components: Easy to get, uses only very common
basic components
 Design testing: Based on datasheet example circuit, I have used
this circuit successfully as part of many electronics projects
 Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power
supply
 Power supply voltage: Unregulated DC 8-18V power supply
 Power supply current: Needed output current + 5 mA
 Component costs: Few dollars for the electronics components + the
input transformer cost
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS

BASIC POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

Above is the circuit of a basic unregulated dc power supply. A bridge

rectifier D1 to D4 rectifies the ac from the transformer secondary, which may also be
a block rectifier such as WO4 or even four individual diodes such as 1N4004 types.
(See later re rectifier ratings).
The principal advantage of a bridge rectifier is you do not need a centre
tap on the secondary of the transformer. A further but significant advantage is that the
ripple frequency at the output is twice the line frequency (i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz) and
makes filtering somewhat easier.
As a design example consider we wanted a small unregulated bench
supply for our projects. Here we will go for a voltage of about 12 - 13V at a
maximum output current (IL) of 500ma (0.5A). Maximum ripple will be 2.5% and
load regulation is 5%.

Now the RMS secondary voltage (primary is whatever is consistent with your area)
for our power transformer T1 must be our desired output Vo PLUS the voltage drops
across D2 and D4 ( 2 * 0.7V) divided by 1.414.
This means that Vsec = [13V + 1.4V] / 1.414 which equals about 10.2V. Depending
on the VA rating of your transformer, the secondary voltage will vary considerably in
accordancewith the applied load. The secondary voltage on a transformer advertised
as say 20VA will be much greater if the secondary is only lightly loaded.
If we accept the 2.5% ripple as adequate for our purposes then at 13V this
becomes 13 * 0.025 = 0.325 Vrms. The peak to peak value is 2.828 times this value.
Vrip = 0.325V X 2.828 = 0.92 V and this value is required to calculate the value of
C1. Also required for this calculation is the time interval for charging pulses. If you
are on a 60Hz system it it 1/ (2 * 60 ) = 0.008333 which is 8.33 milliseconds. For a
50Hz system it is 0.01 sec or 10 milliseconds.
Remember the tolerance of the type of capacitor used here is very loose.
The important thing to be aware of is the voltage rating should be at least 13V X
1.414 or 18.33. Here you would use at least the standard 25V or higher (absolutely not
16V).With our rectifier diodes or bridge they should have a PIV rating of 2.828 times
the Vsec or at least 29V. Don't search for this rating because it doesn't exist. Use the
next highest standard or even higher. The current rating should be at least twice the
load current maximum i.e. 2 X 0.5A or 1A. A good type to use would be 1N4004,
1N4006 or 1N4008 types.
These are rated 1 Amp at 400PIV, 600PIV and 1000PIV respectively.
Always be on the lookout for the higher voltage ones when they are on special.

TRANSFORMER RATING - In our example above we were taking 0.5A out of the
Vsec of 10V. The VA required is 10 X 0.5A = 5VA. This is a small PCB mount
transformer available in Australia and probably elsewhere.
This would be an absolute minimum and if you anticipated drawing the
maximum current all the time then go to a higher VA rating.
The two capacitors in the primary side are small value types and if you don't
know precisely and I mean precisely what you are doing then OMIT them. Their loss
won't cause you heartache or terrible problems.

THEY MUST BE HIGH VOLTAGE TYPES RATED FOR A.C USE

The fuse F1 must be able to carry the primary current but blow under
excessive current, in this case we use the formula from the diagram. Here N = 240V /
10V or perhaps 120V / 10V. The fuse calculates in the first instance to [ 2 X 0.5A ] /
[240 / 10] or .04A or 40 ma. In the second case .08A or 80 ma. The difficulty here is
to find suitable fuses of that low a current and voltage rating. In practice you use the
closest you can get (often 100 ma ). Don't take that too literal and use 1A or 5A fuses.

CONSTRUCTION
The whole project MUST be enclosed in a suitable box. The main switch
(preferably double pole) must be rated at 240V or 120V at the current rating. All
exposed parts within the box MUST be fully insulated, preferably with heat shrink
tubing.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards may be covered in two topics namely

1) Technology
2) Design

Introduction to printed circuit boards:

It is called PCB in short, printed circuit consists of conductive circuit pattern

Applied to one or both sides of an insulating base, depending upon that, it is called
single sided PCB or double-sided PCB.
(SSB and DSB).

Conductor materials available are silver, brass, aluminium and copper. Copper is most
widely used. The thickness of conducting material depends upon the current carrying
capacity of circuit. Thus a thicker copper layer will have more current carrying
capacity.

The printed circuit boards usually serves three distinct functions.

1) it provides mechanical support for the components mounted on it.

 2) It provides necessary electrical interconnections.
3) It acts as heat sink that is provides a conduction path leading to removal of the
heat generated in the circuit.

Advantages of PCB

1) When a number of identical assemblies are required. PCB’s provide cost saving
because once a layout is approved there is no need to check the circuit every time.
2) For large equipments such as computers, the saving on checking connections or
wires is substantial.
3) PCB’s have controllable and predictable electrical and mechanical properties.
4) A more uniform product is produced because wiring errors are eliminated.
5) The distributed capacitances are constant from one production to another.
6) Soldering is done in one operation instead of connecting discrete components
by wires.
7) The PCB construction lands itself for automatic assembly.
8) Spiral type of inductors may be printed.
9) Weight is less.
10) It has miniaturization potential.
11) It has reproducible performance.
12) All the signals are accessible for testing at any point along conductor track.

Classifications of laminates :
Laminates

Glass base lamination Paper base lamination

 There materials are built from several layers of paper or glass, which are bound
together under heat and pressure to form rigid sheets. The binder is usually a
phenolic resin in the case of glass base.

The copper layer is formed on either side or two sides of the laminate.

Because of the different filters and binding resins the characteristic properties
of copper clad laminates change.

The rigid sheets of filters which form reinforcement use paper in the form of
alpha cellulose, craft or rags. These are cheaper and have easy machinbillity. Glass
filter uses glass fibers which are woven to give cloth like appearance. This gives a
high mechanical strength, they are better moisture resistant than above type.

Binding resins are either phenolic or epoxy as mentioned before in addition

to these; phenol formaldehyde and polyesters are also used. Of these, Epoxy resin
has
Good electrical and mechanical properties.

Manufacture of cu clad laminate:

The base of laminate is either paper or glass fiber cloth, as mentioned before.
The copper foil is produced by electroplating a thin layer of copper on a large
rotating drum of stainless steel. As the drum runs the deposited copper layer is
peeled off and forms a continuous length, which is coiled into rolls for use. To
ensure good adhesion between copper foils and base material, surface of copper
on the laminate and both are kept under hydraulic press for proper adhesion.

Types of laminates:
National electrical manufactures association (NEMA) has various grades of
laminates that are obtained by different resins and filters.

(1) Phenolic:
 Phenol and formaldehyde produce phenolic paper base laminate has phenolic
resins with proper filter. The co lour of this base material is usually brown and it
is opaque. Certain additives and the grid is called FR grade.

Disadvantages:

(1) They are attacked by alkalis

(2) They have poor are resistance.

(3) Moisture resistant property is poor than other laminates.

(2) Epoxy laminates;

They can be divided into (a) epoxy glass (b) epoxy paper

Epoxy paper: this is also paper base is impregnated with epoxy resin. The co lour is
yellowish white and it is translucent.

Epoxy glass: this base material is more expensive but is combines relative strength
and good is mainly because of glass fiber. The co lour of this material is usually green
and it is semitransparent.

Properties of epoxy laminates:

(a) They are tougher than phenolic and polyesters.

(b) Chemical nature of epoxies gives good adhesion.

(c) They have better mechanical strength as mentioned before due to low shrinkage.

(d) They have high alkali resistance.

(e) They exhibit good electrical properties over different temperature.

(f) They are moisture resistant.

(3) Polyester laminates:

 They are mostly used with glass fiber. Their water resistance is good.

(4) Dilly phthalate laminate:

These are mostly used with glass fiber. Their maximum temperature limit is
165C.

(5) PTEF laminates:

Advantages:

(a)It has low dissipation factor over wide rang of temperature, humidity and
frequency rang.

(b) Electric strength is high.

(c) High insulation resistance.

(6) Melamine laminates:

This is normally used with glass. It has high are resistance.

(7) Silicone laminates:

They have good heat resistance and good electrical properties .However their
mechanical properties are not good.

(8) Polyamide laminates:

This is the best polymer for heat resistance. When used with glass this gives good
mechanical properties. They has better adhesion to copper. Normally used for military
and space applications.

There are a number of specifications that are applicable to copper clad laminated
e.g.

DIN is use for German standard.

IS is used for join Indian standard.

 JSS is used for join services specifications (ministry of defence)

MIL is used for military standard (U.S.A)

NEMA National Electrical Manufactory’s Association.

By these standards, following parameters are checked:

(1) Pull off strength

(2) Surface resistively

(3) Permittivity and resistance

(4) Temperature resistance

(5) Blistering after heat shock.

Before any pattern is transferred the copper surface is cleaned.

Oxides, hydroxides and salts normally treated as contaminants on copper

surface. Wet brushing is used after scrubbing. Acid dip may also used.
 3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CONROLLER
5v

D7
D6 5v 5v R1 R2
D5
D4 10k 10k 1k 1k
D3
D2 5v
D1 SC L
D0 C1 0 .1 u F SD A
R 3R 4R 5R 6R 7R 8R 9R 1 0 R 1R1 1R2 1R3 1R4 1R5 1R6 1R7 1 8

U1
40

JP1 JP2
VC C

39 8
8 38 P 0.0/AD 0 P 1.7 7 1
7 37 P 0.1/AD 1 P 1.6 6 2
6 36 P 0.2/AD 2 P 1.5 5 3
5v 5 P 0.3/AD 3 P 1.4 4
35 4
4 34 P 0.4/AD 4 P 1.3 3 5
3 33 P 0.5/AD 5 P 1.2 2 6
C2 2 32 P 0.6/AD 6 P 1.1 1 7
C 1 P 0.7/AD 7 P 1.0 8
CON1 9 CON2
R ST

C3 33pF 18 JP3
R 19 XTA L 2 21
8.2k Y1 P 2.0/A8 22 1
P 2.1/A9 23 2
C4 19 P 2.2/A10 24 3
33pF XTA L 1 P 2.3/A11 4
1 1 .5 9 MH z 25
JP4 P 2.4/A12 26 5
17 P 2.5/A13 27 6
8 16 P 3.7/R D P 2.6/A14 28 7
7 15 P 3.6/W R P 2.7/A15 8
6 14 P 3 . 5 / T1
CON4
5 13 P 3 . 4 / TO 29 R 2R0 2R1 2R2 2R3 2R4 2R5 2R6 2 7
CON3 4 12 P 3 . 3 / I N T1 PSEN 30
3 P 3 . 2 / I N TO ALE/PR O G RS
11 31 EN
2 P 3 . 1 / TXD EA/VPP
GND

10 R TC _ D ATA
1 P 3 . 0 / R XD
R TC _ C L K
A T8 9 C 5 1 R TC _ R S T
R XD R 2R9 3R0 3R1 3R2 3R3 3R4 3R5 3 6
20

TXD R 28
1k
5v

5v

5v

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF DISPLAY

 5V

2
R 40
1 3
10K POT J4
10K POT 1
2
3
RS 4
5
EN 6
D0 7
D1 8
D2 9
D3 10
D4 11
D5 12
D6 13
D7 14
15
16
5V LC D _C O N

C 13 0 .1 u F

U4
8

SD A 5 1
SD A A0
VC C

2
6 A1 3
SC L SC L A2
VSS

7
WP
2 4 A TC 1 6
4
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PERIPHARAL
5V

5V

C5 0.1uF
R 3R8 3 9 P1
R R 5
9

16
U2 4
RX 12
R 1O U T R 1IN
13 8

VC C
TX 11
T1 I N
3
8 14 7
10 R 2IN T1 O U T 7 2
T2 I N T2 O U T 9 6
1 R 2O U T 5 1
C6

C+ C 2-

0.1uF C7 C O N N E C TO R D B 9

3 4 C
C 1- C 2+
M A X2 3 2
5V
6 C8
V- 2
V+
GND

C9
0.1uF
C
15

5V
C 10 0 .1 u F
C 11 6uF U3

1
Y2 2
X1

VC C
3 6 R TC _ D ATA
C 12 X2 I/O
6 u F 3 2 .7 6 8 K H z
7 R TC _ C L K
SC LK
8 5 R TC _ R S T
VC C R ST

GND
B T1

3 .3 V D S1302

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The main parts of this schematic diagram are:
 1. POWER SUPPLY.
2. (AT89S52) MICROCONTROLLER.
3. RELAY 1 LAMP
4. RELAY 2 FAN
5. RELAY 3 TV

1. POWER SUPPLY: In this power supply, a step down transformer is used to

step down the current from 230V to 5V AC, next step is to convert this AC to DC
which is done by using a Bridge Rectifier and additional Filter Circuits are used
where the ripples or noised in the DC voltage are removed and at last a 7805
Regulator is used to makeup regulated a 5V DC, from the output of the 7805 IC we
connect a 2 pin connector to make a connection with the corresponding Vcc(40) and
Gnd(20) pins of the AT89S51 microcontroller. Now the microcontroller is powered
up to do the specified controlling action given by the user.

2. AT89S51 (microcontroller): This is a special microcontroller manufactured

by the Atmel Corporation where “AT” stands for ATMEL company and ‘C’ for
CMOS technology.

Concerned to the schematic the Port Pins connections are as follows:

.

Port 2: The e port 2 are connected to the RELAY’S .

Port 3: P3.0 and P3.1(i.e Tx & Rx) is connected to PC via MAX323 to establish
serial communication between target board and PC
Here the rest of the port pins are left unconnected.

5. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
KEIL COMPILER:

Keil compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and
compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code
which is to be dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler
also supports C language code.

PRELOAD:

Preload is software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted
into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is
done by the Preload. Preload is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller
in it other than the one which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a
program in it written in such a way that it accepts the hex file from the Keil compiler
and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller which is to be programmed. As the
Preload programmer kit requires power supply to be operated, this power supply is
given from the power supply circuit designed above. It should be noted that this
programmer kit contains a power supply section in the board itself but in order to
switch on that power supply, a source is required. Thus this is accomplished from the
power supply board with an output of 12volts.

Building an Application in µVision2

To build (compile, assemble, and link) an application in µVision2, you must:

1. Select Project -(forexample,166\EXAMPLES\HELLO\HELLO.UV2).
2. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.
µVision2 compiles, assembles, and links the files in your project.

Creating Your Own Application in µVision2

To create a new project in µVision2, you must:

1. Select Project - New Project.
2. Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.
3. Select Project - Select Device and select an 8051, 251, or C16x/ST10 device
from the Device Database™.
4. Create source files to add to the project.
 5. Select Project - Targets, Groups, Files. Add/Files, select Source Group1, and
add the source files to the project.
6. Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note when you select the
target device from the Device Database™ all special options are set
automatically. You typically only need to configure the memory map of your
target hardware. Default memory model settings are optimal for most
applications.
7. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.

Debugging an Application in µVision2

To debug an application created using µVision2, you must:

1. Select Debug - Start/Stop Debug Session.
2. Use the Step toolbar buttons to single-step through your program. You may
enter G, main in the Output Window to execute to the main C function.
3. Open the Serial Window using the Serial #1 button on the toolbar.
Debug your program using standard options like Step, Go, Break, and so on.

Starting µVision2 and Creating a Project

µVision2 is a standard Windows application and started by clicking on the program
icon. To create a new project file select from the µVision2 menu
Project – New Project…. This opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you
for the new project file name.
We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project. You can simply use
the icon Create New Folder in this dialog to get a new empty folder. Then
select this folder and enter the file name for the new project, i.e. Project1.
µVision2 creates a new project file with the name PROJECT1.UV2 which contains
a default target and file group name. You can see these names in the Project
Window – Files.
Now use from the menu Project – Select Device for Target and select a CPU
for your project. The Select Device dialog box shows the µVision2 device
database. Just select the microcontroller you use. We are using for our examples the
Philips 80C51RD+ CPU. This selection sets necessary tool
options for the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way the tool Configuration
Building Projects and Creating a HEX Files
Typical, the tool settings under Options – Target are all you need to start a new
application. You may translate all source files and line the application with a
click on the Build Target toolbar icon. When you build an application with
syntax errors, µVision2 will display errors and warning messages in the Output
Window – Build page. A double click on a message line opens the source file
on the correct location in a µVision2 editor window.
Once you have successfully generated your application you can start debugging.

After you have tested your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX
file to download the software into an EPROM programmer or simulator. µVision2
creates HEX files with each build process when Create HEX file under Options for
Target – Output is enabled. You may start your PROM programming utility after the
make process when you specify the program under the option Run User Program #1.
CPU Simulation
µVision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be
mapped for read, write, or code execution access. The µVision2 simulator traps
and reports illegal memory accesses.
In addition to memory mapping, the simulator also provides support for the
integrated peripherals of the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals
of the CPU you have selected are configured from the Device
Database selection
you have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more
information about selecting a device .You may select and display the on-chip
peripheral components using the Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of
each peripheral using the controls in the dialog boxes.
Start Debugging
You start the debug mode of µVision2 with the Debug – Start/Stop Debug
Session command. Depending on the Options for Target – Debug
configuration, µVision2 will load the application program and run the startup
code µVision2 saves the editor screen layout and restores the screen lay out of the last
debug session. If the program execution stops, µVision2 opens an
editor window with the source text or shows CPU instructions in the disassembly
window. The next executable statement is marked with a yellow arrow. During
debugging, most editor features are still available.
For example, you can use the find command or correct program errors. Program
source text of your application is shown in the same windows. The µVision2 debug
mode differs from the edit mode in the following aspects:
_ The “Debug Menu and Debug Commands” described on page 28 are
available. The additional debug windows are discussed in the following.
_ The project structure or tool parameters cannot be modified. All build
commands are disabled.
Disassembly Window
The Disassembly window shows your target program as mixed source and assembly
program or just assembly code. A trace history of previously executed instructions
may be displayed with Debug – View Trace Records. To enable the trace history, set
Debug – Enable/Disable Trace Recording.
If you select the Disassembly Window as the active window all program step
commands work on CPU instruction level rather than program source lines. You can
select a text line and set or modify code breakpoints using toolbar buttons or the
context menu commands.
You may use the dialog Debug – Inline Assembly… to modify the CPU
instructions. That allows you to correct mistakes or to make temporary changes to the
target program you are debugging.

1. Click on the Keil uVision Icon on DeskTop

2. The following fig will appear
3. Click on the Project menu from the title bar
4. Then Click on New Project

5. Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no

extension in u r own folder sited in either C:\ or D:\
6. Then Click on Save button above.
7. Select the component for u r project. i.e. Atmel……
8. Click on the + Symbol beside of Atmel

9. Select AT89C51 as shown below

10. Then Click on “OK”
11. The Following fig will appear

12. Then Click either YES or NO………mostly “NO”

13. Now your project is ready to USE

14. Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option
“Source group 1” as shown in next page.

15. Click on the file option from menu bar and select “new”

16. The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just
maximize it by double clicking on its blue boarder.
17. Now start writing program in either in “C” or “ASM”
18. For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension
“. asm” and for “C” based program save it with extension
“ .C”

19. Now right click on Source group 1 and click on “Add files to
Group Source”
20. Now you will get another window, on which by default “C”
files will appear.

21. Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file
22. Click only one time on option “ADD”
23. Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if
so happen.
24. If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5
simultaneously.
25. The new window is as follows

26. Then Click “OK”

27. Now Click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your
required port as shown in fig below
28. Drag the port a side and click in the program file.

29. Now keep Pressing function key “F11” slowly and observe.
30. You are running your program successfully
Source code:
#include<reg51.h>

#define ON 0
#define OFF 1

void delay_ms(unsigned int );

sbit ir1 = P2^0;

sbit buzzer = P1^0;

void main(void)
{
unsigned char i=0;
buzzer = 0;
while(1)
{
if(ir1 == 1)//normal case
{
buzzer = 1;
delay_ms(1000);
}
else
buzzer = 0;
}
}

void delay_ms(unsigned int i)

{
unsigned int j;
while(i-->0)
{
for(j=0;j<500;j++)
{
;
}
}
}