Internet

The Internet (or internet)[a] is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP)[b] to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of
networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to
global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.
The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked
hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, internet
telephony, and file sharing.

The origins of the Internet date back to research that enabled the time-sharing of computer
resources, the development of packet switching in the 1960s and the design of computer networks
for data communication.[2][3] The set of rules (communication protocols) to enable internetworking
on the Internet arose from research and development commissioned in the 1970s by the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense in
collaboration with universities and researchers across the United States and in the United Kingdom
and France.[4][5][6] The ARPANET initially served as a backbone for the interconnection of regional
academic and military networks in the United States to enable resource sharing. The funding of the
National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding
for other commercial extensions, encouraged worldwide participation in the development of new
networking technologies and the merger of many networks using DARPA's Internet protocol suite.[7]
The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s, as well as the advent of the
World Wide Web,[8] marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet,[9] and generated
sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were
connected to the internetwork. Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the 1980s, the
subsequent commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s and beyond incorporated its services
and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.

Most traditional communication media, including telephone, radio, television, paper mail, and
newspapers, are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services
such as email, Internet telephone, Internet radio, Internet television, online music, digital
newspapers, and audio and video streaming websites. Newspapers, books, and other print
publishing have adapted to website technology or have been reshaped into blogging, web feeds, and
online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal
interaction through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services. Online
shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses, and entrepreneurs, as it
enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods
and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect
supply chains across entire industries.

The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies
for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies.[10] The overarching definitions
of the two principal name spaces on the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space
and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and
standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a
non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate
with by contributing technical expertise.[11] In November 2006, the Internet was included on USA
Today 's list of the New Seven Wonders.[12]

Terminology

The word internetted was used as early as 1849, meaning interconnected or interwoven.[13] The
word Internet was used in 1945 by the United States War Department in a radio operator's
manual,[14] and in 1974 as the shorthand form of Internetwork.[15] Today, the term Internet most
commonly refers to the global system of interconnected computer networks, though it may also
refer to any group of smaller networks.[16]

When it came into common use, most publications treated the word Internet as a capitalized proper
noun; this has become less common.[16] This reflects the tendency in English to capitalize new
terms and move them to lowercase as they become familiar.[16][17] The word is sometimes still
capitalized to distinguish the global internet from smaller networks, though many publications,
including the AP Stylebook since 2016, recommend the lowercase form in every case.[16][17] In 2016,
the Oxford English Dictionary found that, based on a study of around 2.5 billion printed and online
sources, "Internet" was capitalized in 54% of cases.[18]

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably; it is common to speak of
"going on the Internet" when using a web browser to view web pages. However, the World Wide Web,
or the Web, is only one of a large number of Internet services,[19] a collection of documents (web
pages) and other web resources linked by hyperlinks and URLs.[20]
History

A sketch of the ARPANET in

December 1969. The nodes at UCLA
and the Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) are among those depicted.[21]

In the 1960s, computer scientists began developing systems for time-sharing of computer
resources.[22][23] J. C. R. Licklider proposed the idea of a universal network while working at Bolt
Beranek & Newman and, later, leading the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense (DoD).
Research into packet switching, one of the fundamental Internet technologies, started in the work of
Paul Baran at RAND in the early 1960s and, independently, Donald Davies at the United Kingdom's
National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in 1965.[2][24] After the Symposium on Operating Systems
Principles in 1967, packet switching from the proposed NPL network and routing concepts
proposed by Baran were incorporated into the design of the ARPANET, an experimental resource
sharing network proposed by ARPA.[25][26][27]

ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were interconnected between the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI
International) on 29 October 1969.[28] The third site was at the University of California, Santa
Barbara, followed by the University of Utah. In a sign of future growth, 15 sites were connected to
the young ARPANET by the end of 1971.[29][30] These early years were documented in the 1972 film
Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.[31] Thereafter, the ARPANET gradually
developed into a decentralized communications network, connecting remote centers and military
bases in the United States.[32] Other user networks and research networks, such as the Merit
Network and CYCLADES, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[33]

Early international collaborations for the ARPANET were rare. Connections were made in 1973 to
Norway (NORSAR and NDRE),[34] and to Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London
(UCL), which provided a gateway to British academic networks, forming the first internetwork for
resource sharing.[35] ARPA projects, the International Network Working Group and commercial
initiatives led to the development of various protocols and standards by which multiple separate
networks could become a single network or "a network of networks".[36] In 1974, Vint Cerf at
Stanford University and Bob Kahn at DARPA published a proposal for "A Protocol for Packet
Network Intercommunication".[37] They used the term internet as a shorthand for internetwork in
RFC 675 (https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc675) ,[15] and later RFCs repeated this use. Cerf and
Kahn credit Louis Pouzin and others with important influences on the resulting TCP/IP design.[37][38]
National PTTs and commercial providers developed the X.25 standard and deployed it on public
data networks.[39]

Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded
the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was
standardized, which facilitated worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks. TCP/IP network
access expanded again in 1986 when the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) provided
access to supercomputer sites in the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and
later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.[40] The NSFNet expanded into academic and research
organizations in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan in 1988–89.[41][42][43][44] Although other
network protocols such as UUCP and PTT public data networks had global reach well before this
time, this marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network. Commercial Internet
service providers (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United States and Australia.[45] The ARPANET was
decommissioned in 1990.[46]

T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992

Steady advances in semiconductor technology and optical networking created new economic
opportunities for commercial involvement in the expansion of the network in its core and for
delivering services to the public. In mid-1989, MCI Mail and Compuserve established connections to
the Internet, delivering email and public access products to the half million users of the Internet.[47]
Just months later, on 1 January 1990, PSInet launched an alternate Internet backbone for
commercial use; one of the networks that added to the core of the commercial Internet of later
years. In March 1990, the first high-speed T1 (1.5 Mbit/s) link between the NSFNET and Europe was
installed between Cornell University and CERN, allowing much more robust communications than
were capable with satellites.[48]

Later in 1990, Tim Berners-Lee began writing WorldWideWeb, the first web browser, after two years
of lobbying CERN management. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for
a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9,[49] the HyperText Markup Language
(HTML), the first Web browser (which was also an HTML editor and could access Usenet
newsgroups and FTP files), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first
web server,[50] and the first Web pages that described the project itself. In 1991 the Commercial
Internet eXchange was founded, allowing PSInet to communicate with the other commercial
networks CERFnet and Alternet. Stanford Federal Credit Union was the first financial institution to
offer online Internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994.[51] In 1996, OP Financial
Group, also a cooperative bank, became the second online bank in the world and the first in
Europe.[52] By 1995, the Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. when the NSFNet was
decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.[53]

Worldwide Internet users[54]

2005 2010 2017 2023

World population (billions)[55] 6.5 6.9 7.4 8.0

Worldwide 16% 30% 48% 67%

In developing world 8% 21% 41.3% 60%

In developed world 51% 67% 81% 93%

As technology advanced and commercial opportunities fueled reciprocal growth, the volume of
Internet traffic started experiencing similar characteristics as that of the scaling of MOS transistors,
exemplified by Moore's law, doubling every 18 months. This growth, formalized as Edholm's law, was
catalyzed by advances in MOS technology, laser light wave systems, and noise performance.[56]

Since 1995, the Internet has tremendously impacted culture and commerce, including the rise of
near-instant communication by email, instant messaging, telephony (Voice over Internet Protocol or
VoIP), two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web[57] with its discussion forums, blogs,
social networking services, and online shopping sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted
at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, or more. The
Internet continues to grow, driven by ever-greater amounts of online information and knowledge,
commerce, entertainment and social networking services.[58] During the late 1990s, it was
estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual
growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%.[59] This growth is
often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as
well as the non-proprietary nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor
interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.[60]
As of 31 March 2011, the estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30% of world
population).[61] It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing
through two-way telecommunication. By 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than
97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet.[62]

Governance

ICANN headquarters in the Playa

Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles,
California, United States

The Internet is a global network that comprises many voluntarily interconnected autonomous
networks. It operates without a central governing body. The technical underpinning and
standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone
may associate with by contributing technical expertise. To maintain interoperability, the principal
name spaces of the Internet are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN). ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the
Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. ICANN coordinates
the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain names, IP addresses,
application port numbers in the transport protocols, and many other parameters. Globally unified
name spaces are essential for maintaining the global reach of the Internet. This role of ICANN
distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the global Internet.[63]

Regional Internet registries (RIRs) were established for five regions of the world. The African
Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa, the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)
for North America, the Asia–Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific
region, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America
and the Caribbean region, and the Réseaux IP Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE
NCC) for Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia were delegated to assign IP address blocks and
other Internet parameters to local registries, such as Internet service providers, from a designated
pool of addresses set aside for each region.

The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the United States
Department of Commerce, had final approval over changes to the DNS root zone until the IANA
stewardship transition on 1 October 2016.[64][65][66][67] The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded in
1992 with a mission to "assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the
benefit of all people throughout the world".[68] Its members include individuals (anyone may join) as
well as corporations, organizations, governments, and universities. Among other activities ISOC
provides an administrative home for a number of less formally organized groups that are involved in
developing and managing the Internet, including: the IETF, Internet Architecture Board (IAB), Internet
Engineering Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Internet Research
Steering Group (IRSG). On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the
Information Society in Tunis established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-
related issues.

Infrastructure

2007 map showing submarine

fiberoptic telecommunication cables
around the world

The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a
system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. As with any computer
network, the Internet physically consists of routers, media (such as cabling and radio links),
repeaters, modems etc. However, as an example of internetworking, many of the network nodes are
not necessarily Internet equipment per se. The internet packets are carried by other full-fledged
networking protocols with the Internet acting as a homogeneous networking standard, running
across heterogeneous hardware, with the packets guided to their destinations by IP routers.
Service tiers

Packet routing across the Internet

involves several tiers of Internet
service providers.

Internet service providers (ISPs) establish the worldwide connectivity between individual networks
at various levels of scope. End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a
function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top of the
routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large telecommunication companies that exchange traffic
directly with each other via very high speed fiber-optic cables and governed by peering agreements.
Tier 2 and lower-level networks buy Internet transit from other providers to reach at least some
parties on the global Internet, though they may also engage in peering. An ISP may use a single
upstream provider for connectivity, or implement multihoming to achieve redundancy and load
balancing. Internet exchange points are major traffic exchanges with physical connections to
multiple ISPs. Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large enterprises, and
governments, may perform the same function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit
on behalf of their internal networks. Research networks tend to interconnect with large subnetworks
such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK's national research and education network, JANET.

Access

Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via
telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and
cellular telephone technology (e.g. 3G, 4G). The Internet may often be accessed from computers in
libraries and Internet cafés. Internet access points exist in many public places such as airport halls
and coffee shops. Various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and
Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-based. These terminals
are widely accessed for various usages, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment. Wi-
Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks. Hotspots providing such
access include Wi-Fi cafés, where users need to bring their own wireless devices, such as a laptop
or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based.
Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services that cover
large areas are available in many cities, such as New York, London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco,
Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh, where the Internet can then be accessed from places such as
a park bench.[69] Experiments have also been conducted with proprietary mobile wireless networks
like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular networks, and fixed wireless services.
Modern smartphones can also access the Internet through the cellular carrier network. For Web
browsing, these devices provide applications such as Google Chrome, Safari, and Firefox and a wide
variety of other Internet software may be installed from app stores. Internet usage by mobile and
tablet devices exceeded desktop worldwide for the first time in October 2016.[70]

Mobile communication

Number of mobile cellular

subscriptions 2012–2016

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) estimated that, by the end of 2017, 48% of
individual users regularly connect to the Internet, up from 34% in 2012.[71] Mobile Internet
connectivity has played an important role in expanding access in recent years, especially in Asia and
the Pacific and in Africa.[72] The number of unique mobile cellular subscriptions increased from
3.9 billion in 2012 to 4.8 billion in 2016, two-thirds of the world's population, with more than half of
subscriptions located in Asia and the Pacific. The number of subscriptions was predicted to rise to
5.7 billion users in 2020.[73] As of 2018, 80% of the world's population were covered by a 4G
network.[73] The limits that users face on accessing information via mobile applications coincide
with a broader process of fragmentation of the Internet. Fragmentation restricts access to media
content and tends to affect the poorest users the most.[72]

Zero-rating, the practice of Internet service providers allowing users free connectivity to access
specific content or applications without cost, has offered opportunities to surmount economic
hurdles but has also been accused by its critics as creating a two-tiered Internet. To address the
issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of 'equal rating' and is
being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange in Africa. Equal rating prevents prioritization of
one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. In a study published by
Chatham House, 15 out of 19 countries researched in Latin America had some kind of hybrid or
zero-rated product offered. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from
(across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-
paid and 34 post-paid plans.[74]

A study of eight countries in the Global South found that zero-rated data plans exist in every country,
although there is a great range in the frequency with which they are offered and actually used in
each.[75] The study looked at the top three to five carriers by market share in Bangladesh, Colombia,
Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Peru and Philippines. Across the 181 plans examined, 13 percent were
offering zero-rated services. Another study, covering Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, found
Facebook's Free Basics and Wikipedia Zero to be the most commonly zero-rated content.[76]

Internet Protocol Suite

The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol suite (also called
TCP/IP, based on the first two components.) This is a suite of protocols that are ordered into a set
of four conceptional layers by the scope of their operation, originally documented in RFC 1122 (http
s://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1122) and RFC 1123 (https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1123) . At
the top is the application layer, where communication is described in terms of the objects or data
structures most appropriate for each application. For example, a web browser operates in a client–
server application model and exchanges information with the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
and an application-germane data structure, such as the HyperText Markup Language (HTML).

Below this top layer, the transport layer connects applications on different hosts with a logical
channel through the network. It provides this service with a variety of possible characteristics, such
as ordered, reliable delivery (TCP), and an unreliable datagram service (UDP).

Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect networks at their borders
and exchange traffic across them. The Internet layer implements the Internet Protocol (IP) which
enables computers to identify and locate each other by IP address and route their traffic via
intermediate (transit) networks.[77] The Internet Protocol layer code is independent of the type of
network that it is physically running over.
At the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which connects nodes on the same physical link,
and contains protocols that do not require routers for traversal to other links. The protocol suite
does not explicitly specify hardware methods to transfer bits, or protocols to manage such
hardware, but assumes that appropriate technology is available. Examples of that technology
include Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and DSL.

As user data is processed through the

protocol stack, each abstraction layer
adds encapsulation information at the
sending host. Data is transmitted over
the wire at the link level between
hosts and routers. Encapsulation is
removed by the receiving host.
Intermediate relays update link
encapsulation at each hop, and
inspect the IP layer for routing
purposes.
Internet protocol

Conceptual data flow in a simple

network topology of two hosts (A and
B) connected by a link between their
respective routers. The application on
each host executes read and write
operations as if the processes were
directly connected to each other by
some kind of data pipe. After the
establishment of this pipe, most
details of the communication are
hidden from each process, as the
underlying principles of
communication are implemented in
the lower protocol layers. In analogy,
at the transport layer the
communication appears as host-to-
host, without knowledge of the
application data structures and the
connecting routers, while at the
internetworking layer, individual
network boundaries are traversed at
each router.

The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP). IP enables
internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself. Two versions of the Internet Protocol
exist, IPv4 and IPv6.
IP Addresses

A DNS resolver consults three name

servers to resolve the domain name
user-visible "www.wikipedia.org" to
determine the IPv4 Address
207.142.131.234.

For locating individual computers on the network, the Internet provides IP addresses. IP addresses
are used by the Internet infrastructure to direct internet packets to their destinations. They consist
of fixed-length numbers, which are found within the packet. IP addresses are generally assigned to
equipment either automatically via DHCP, or are configured.

However, the network also supports other addressing systems. Users generally enter domain names
(e.g. "en.wikipedia.org") instead of IP addresses because they are easier to remember; they are
converted by the Domain Name System (DNS) into IP addresses which are more efficient for routing
purposes.

IPv4

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.[77] IPv4 is the initial
version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed in
1981 to address up to ≈4.3 billion (109) hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led
to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011,[78] when the global IPv4 address
allocation pool was exhausted.

IPv6

Because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version
of IP IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and
more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 uses 128 bits for the IP address and was standardized
in 1998.[79][80][81] IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s and is currently in growing
deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource
managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.[82]

IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel version of
the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. Thus, translation facilities must exist for
internetworking or nodes must have duplicate networking software for both networks. Essentially all
modern computer operating systems support both versions of the Internet Protocol. Network
infrastructure, however, has been lagging in this development. Aside from the complex array of
physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral
commercial contracts, e.g., peering agreements, and by technical specifications or protocols that
describe the exchange of data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its
interconnections and routing policies.

Subnetwork

Creating a subnet by dividing the host identifier

A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network.[83]: 1, 16 The practice of dividing a

network into two or more networks is called subnetting. Computers that belong to a subnet are
addressed with an identical most-significant bit-group in their IP addresses. This results in the
logical division of an IP address into two fields, the network number or routing prefix and the rest
field or host identifier. The rest field is an identifier for a specific host or network interface.

The routing prefix may be expressed in Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation written as
the first address of a network, followed by a slash character (/), and ending with the bit-length of the
prefix. For example, 198.51.100.0/24 is the prefix of the Internet Protocol version 4 network starting
at the given address, having 24 bits allocated for the network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits
reserved for host addressing. Addresses in the range 198.51.100.0 to 198.51.100.255 belong to this
network. The IPv6 address specification 2001:db8::/32 is a large address block with 296 addresses,
having a 32-bit routing prefix.

For IPv4, a network may also be characterized by its subnet mask or netmask, which is the bitmask
that when applied by a bitwise AND operation to any IP address in the network, yields the routing
prefix. Subnet masks are also expressed in dot-decimal notation like an address. For example,
255.255.255.0 is the subnet mask for the prefix 198.51.100.0/24 .

Traffic is exchanged between subnetworks through routers when the routing prefixes of the source
address and the destination address differ. A router serves as a logical or physical boundary
between the subnets.

The benefits of subnetting an existing network vary with each deployment scenario. In the address
allocation architecture of the Internet using CIDR and in large organizations, it is necessary to
allocate address space efficiently. Subnetting may also enhance routing efficiency or have
advantages in network management when subnetworks are administratively controlled by different
entities in a larger organization. Subnets may be arranged logically in a hierarchical architecture,
partitioning an organization's network address space into a tree-like routing structure.

Routing

Computers and routers use routing tables in their operating system to direct IP packets to reach a
node on a different subnetwork. Routing tables are maintained by manual configuration or
automatically by routing protocols. End-nodes typically use a default route that points toward an ISP
providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border Gateway Protocol to establish the most efficient
routing across the complex connections of the global Internet. The default gateway is the node that
serves as the forwarding host (router) to other networks when no other route specification matches
the destination IP address of a packet.[84][85]

IETF

While the hardware components in the Internet infrastructure can often be used to support other
software systems, it is the design and the standardization process of the software that
characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The
responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been assumed by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[86] The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups,
open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture. The resulting
contributions and standards are published as Request for Comments (RFC) documents on the IETF
web site. The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially
designated RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply
informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP) when
implementing Internet technologies.

Applications and services

The Internet carries many applications and services, most prominently the World Wide Web,
including social media, electronic mail, mobile applications, multiplayer online games, Internet
telephony, file sharing, and streaming media services. Most servers that provide these services are
today hosted in data centers, and content is often accessed through high-performance content
delivery networks.
World Wide Web

This NeXT Computer was used by

Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and became
the world's first Web server.

The World Wide Web is a global collection of documents, images, multimedia, applications, and
other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource
Identifiers (URIs), which provide a global system of named references. URIs symbolically identify
services, web servers, databases, and the documents and resources that they can provide.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web. Web
services also use HTTP for communication between software systems for information transfer,
sharing and exchanging business data and logistics and is one of many languages or protocols that
can be used for communication on the Internet.[87]

World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer/Edge, Mozilla Firefox,
Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome, enable users to navigate from one web page to another
via the hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any
combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive
content that runs while the user is interacting with the page. Client-side software can include
animations, games, office applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-driven
Internet research using search engines like Yahoo!, Bing and Google, users worldwide have easy,
instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media,
books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization
of information on a large scale.

The Web has enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially
large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or
building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. However,
publishing and maintaining large, professional websites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date
information is still a difficult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and
groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily being able to update online diaries.
Some commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of
specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free
information and be attracted to the corporation as a result.

Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce, which is the sale of products
and services directly via the Web, continues to grow. Online advertising is a form of marketing and
advertising which uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers. It
includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of
display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising. In 2011, Internet
advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and nearly exceeded
those of broadcast television.[88]: 19 Many common online advertising practices are controversial
and increasingly subject to regulation.

When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web
server, formatted in HTML, ready for transmission to a web browser in response to a request. Over
time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating a flexible
design, layout, and content. Websites are often created using content management software with,
initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an
organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for
that purpose while casual visitors view and read this content in HTML form. There may or may not
be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content
and making it available to the target visitors.

Communication

Email is an important communications service available via the Internet. The concept of sending
electronic text messages between parties, analogous to mailing letters or memos, predates the
creation of the Internet.[89][90] Pictures, documents, and other files are sent as email attachments.
Email messages can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses.

Internet telephony is a common communications service realized with the Internet. The name of the
principal internetworking protocol, the Internet Protocol, lends its name to voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP). The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for
personal computers. VoIP systems now dominate many markets and are as easy to use and as
convenient as a traditional telephone. The benefit has been substantial cost savings over traditional
telephone calls, especially over long distances. Cable, ADSL, and mobile data networks provide
Internet access in customer premises[91] and inexpensive VoIP network adapters provide the
connection for traditional analog telephone sets. The voice quality of VoIP often exceeds that of
traditional calls. Remaining problems for VoIP include the situation that emergency services may
not be universally available and that devices rely on a local power supply, while older traditional
phones are powered from the local loop, and typically operate during a power failure.

Data transfer

File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file
can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a
website or File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server for easy download by others. It can be put into a
"shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to
many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these
cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the
Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file. The
price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are
also passed—usually fully encrypted—across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file
received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests. These simple
features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution
of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print
publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts.
This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled
the production and distribution of these products.

Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for immediate consumption or enjoyment
by end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and
video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips
and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet
"broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such
as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access online media in much the same
way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types
of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia
services. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where—usually audio—material is downloaded and
played back on a computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move.
These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control,
to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide. Digital media streaming increases the demand for
network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD
720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.[92]

Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-
rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals
around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor
their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular
with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was
founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with more
than two billion users.[93] It uses an HTML5 based web player by default to stream and show video
files.[94] Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal
profile. YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of
thousands of videos daily.

Social impact

The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction, activities, and social associations. This
phenomenon has given rise to the scholarly study of the sociology of the Internet. The early Internet
left an impact on some writers who used symbolism to write about it, such as describing the
Internet as a "means to connect individuals in a vast invisible net over all the earth."[95]

Users

Share of population using the

Internet.[96] Source data.
 Internet users per 100 population
members and GDP per capita for
selected countries

Internet users per 100 inhabitants

[97][98]
Source: International Telecommunication Union.

Between 2000 and 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 390 million to
1.9 billion.[99] By 2010, 22% of the world's population had access to computers with 1 billion Google
searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on
YouTube.[100] In 2014 the world's Internet users surpassed 3 billion or 44 percent of world
population, but two-thirds came from the richest countries, with 78 percent of Europeans using the
Internet, followed by 57 percent of the Americas.[101] However, by 2018, Asia alone accounted for
51% of all Internet users, with 2.2 billion out of the 4.3 billion Internet users in the world. China's
Internet users surpassed a major milestone in 2018, when the country's Internet regulatory authority,
China Internet Network Information Centre, announced that China had 802 million users.[102] China
was followed by India, with some 700 million users, with the United States third with 275 million
users. However, in terms of penetration, in 2022 China had a 70% penetration rate compared to
India's 60% and the United States's 90%.[103] In 2022, 54% of the world's Internet users were based in
Asia, 14% in Europe, 7% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 11% in Africa, 4%
in the Middle East and 1% in Oceania.[104] In 2019, Kuwait, Qatar, the Falkland Islands, Bermuda and
Iceland had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with 93% or more of the
population with access.[105] As of 2022, it was estimated that 5.4 billion people use the Internet,
more than two-thirds of the world's population.[106]
The prevalent language for communication via the Internet has always been English. This may be a
result of the origin of the Internet, as well as the language's role as a lingua franca and as a world
language. Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet. After English (27%), the most
requested languages on the World Wide Web are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%),
Portuguese and German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean (2%).[107] The
Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that
good facilities are available for development and communication in the world's widely used
languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some languages'
characters) still remain.

In a US study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the
percentage of women, although this difference reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more
often, spent more time online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas women tended
to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email). Men were more likely to use
the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and
videos. Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking.[108] In
2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most social networking services, such as
Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with age.[109] Women watched more streaming
content, whereas men downloaded more.[110] Men were more likely to blog. Among those who blog,
men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a
personal blog.[111]

Several neologisms exist that refer to Internet users: Netizen (as in "citizen of the net")[112] refers to
those actively involved in improving online communities, the Internet in general or surrounding
political affairs and rights such as free speech,[113][114] Internaut refers to operators or technically
highly capable users of the Internet,[115][116] digital citizen refers to a person using the Internet in
order to engage in society, politics, and government participation.[117]
Internet users by language[107]

Website content languages[118]

Usage

Internet users in 2021 as a percentage of a country's

population
Source: Our World in Data.

Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012

as a percentage of a country's population
Source: International Telecommunication Union.[119]

Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012

as a percentage of a country's population
Source: International Telecommunication Union.[120]

The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of
unmetered high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous
means, including through mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game
consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations
imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of
the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the
services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access methods.

Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites.
Examples range from CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides and virtual
universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar. For
distance education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided learning, whiling away
spare time or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been easier for people
to access educational information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the World
Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and informal education. Further, the
Internet allows researchers (especially those from the social and behavioral sciences) to conduct
research remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and generalizability of
findings as well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of results.[121]

The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills have made
collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software. Not only can a group
cheaply communicate and share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more
easily to form. An example of this is the free software movement, which has produced, among other
things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org (later forked into LibreOffice). Internet chat,
whether using an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social networking service,
allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while working at their computers during
the day. Messages can be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email. These
systems may allow files to be exchanged, drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video
contact between team members.

Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents
simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other's work. Business and project teams can
share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide
variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political
activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread
as both Internet access and computer literacy spread.

The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores
easily from any access point. Access may be with computer security; i.e., authentication and
encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of remote
work, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can
audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is
remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-
working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices
all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but
the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office
worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday,
can access their emails, access their data using cloud computing, or open a remote desktop
session into their office PC using a secure virtual private network (VPN) connection on the Internet.
This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal files and data, including email and
other applications, while away from the office. It has been referred to among system administrators
as the Virtual Private Nightmare,[122] because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network
into remote locations and its employees' homes. By the late 2010s the Internet had been described
as "the main source of scientific information "for the majority of the global North population".[123]: 111

Social networking and entertainment

Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book
vacations and to pursue their personal interests. People use chat, messaging and email to make
and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen
pals. Social networking services such as Facebook have created new ways to socialize and interact.
Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, pursue common
interests, and connect with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow
communication among existing groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and
business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize in users' videos and photographs. Social
networking services are also widely used by businesses and other organizations to promote their
brands, to market to their customers and to encourage posts to "go viral". "Black hat" social media
techniques are also employed by some organizations, such as spam accounts and astroturfing.

A risk for both individuals' and organizations' writing posts (especially public posts) on social
networking services is that especially foolish or controversial posts occasionally lead to an
unexpected and possibly large-scale backlash on social media from other Internet users. This is
also a risk in relation to controversial offline behavior, if it is widely made known. The nature of this
backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and hate
speech, to, in extreme cases, rape and death threats. The online disinhibition effect describes the
tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively online than they would in
person. A significant number of feminist women have been the target of various forms of
harassment in response to posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been
criticized in the past for not doing enough to aid victims of online abuse.[124]

For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall brand damage, especially if reported by the
media. However, this is not always the case, as any brand damage in the eyes of people with an
opposing opinion to that presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by
strengthening the brand in the eyes of others. Furthermore, if an organization or individual gives in
to demands that others perceive as wrong-headed, that can then provoke a counter-backlash.

Some websites, such as Reddit, have rules forbidding the posting of personal information of
individuals (also known as doxxing), due to concerns about such postings leading to mobs of large
numbers of Internet users directing harassment at the specific individuals thereby identified. In
particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal information is widely understood to
imply that all identifying photos and names must be censored in Facebook screenshots posted to
Reddit. However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts is less clear, and in
any case, like-minded people online have many other ways they can use to direct each other's
attention to public social media posts they disagree with.

Children also face dangers online such as cyberbullying and approaches by sexual predators, who
sometimes pose as children themselves. Children may also encounter material that they may find
upsetting, or material that their parents consider to be not age-appropriate. Due to naivety, they may
also post personal information about themselves online, which could put them or their families at
risk unless warned not to do so. Many parents choose to enable Internet filtering or supervise their
children's online activities in an attempt to protect their children from inappropriate material on the
Internet. The most popular social networking services, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly
forbid users under the age of 13. However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by
registering an account with a false birth date, and a significant number of children aged under 13
join such sites anyway. Social networking services for younger children, which claim to provide
better levels of protection for children, also exist.[125]

The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social
experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related
Usenet groups receiving much traffic.[126] Many Internet forums have sections devoted to games
and funny videos.[126] The Internet pornography and online gambling industries have taken
advantage of the World Wide Web. Although many governments have attempted to restrict both
industries' use of the Internet, in general, this has failed to stop their widespread popularity.[127]

Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming.[128] This form of recreation
creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer
games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to
online gambling. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online
gaming began with subscription services such as GameSpy and MPlayer.[129] Non-subscribers were
limited to certain types of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access and
download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. Free and fee-based
services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer
technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists'
copyrights than others.

Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness.[130] Lonely people tend to use the Internet
as an outlet for their feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the "I am lonely will
anyone speak to me" thread. A 2017 book claimed that the Internet consolidates most aspects of
human endeavor into singular arenas of which all of humanity are potential members and
competitors, with fundamentally negative impacts on mental health as a result. While successes in
each field of activity are pervasively visible and trumpeted, they are reserved for an extremely thin
sliver of the world's most exceptional, leaving everyone else behind. Whereas, before the Internet,
expectations of success in any field were supported by reasonable probabilities of achievement at
the village, suburb, city or even state level, the same expectations in the Internet world are virtually
certain to bring disappointment today: there is always someone else, somewhere on the planet, who
can do better and take the now one-and-only top spot.[131]

Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form that involves, "highly dispersed small groups of
practitioners that may remain largely anonymous within the larger social context and operate in
relative secrecy, while still linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set of
practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader. Overseas supporters
provide funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute tracts, participate in acts of
resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively, members and
practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal
testimonies and engaging in the collective study via email, online chat rooms, and web-based
message boards."[132] In particular, the British government has raised concerns about the prospect
of young British Muslims being indoctrinated into Islamic extremism by material on the Internet,
being persuaded to join terrorist groups such as the so-called "Islamic State", and then potentially
committing acts of terrorism on returning to Britain after fighting in Syria or Iraq.

Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57
minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business
Services.[133] Internet addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life.
Nicholas G. Carr believes that Internet use has other effects on individuals, for instance improving
skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity.[134]

Electronic business

Electronic business (e-business) encompasses business processes spanning the entire value chain:
purchasing, supply chain management, marketing, sales, customer service, and business
relationship. E-commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance
relationships with clients and partners. According to International Data Corporation, the size of
worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are
combined, equate to $16 trillion for 2013. A report by Oxford Economics added those two together
to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of
global sales.[135]

While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is
also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may
serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide.[136] Electronic commerce may be
responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses
resulting in increases in income inequality.[137][138][139]

Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has
focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013
Institute for Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47 people for every
$10 million in sales while Amazon employs only 14. Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up
Airbnb was valued at $10 billion in 2014, about half as much as Hilton Worldwide, which employs
152,000 people. At that time, Uber employed 1,000 full-time employees and was valued at
$18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis Rent a Car and The Hertz Corporation combined,
which together employed almost 60,000 people.[140]

Remote work

Remote work is facilitated by tools such as groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling,
videotelephony, and VoIP so that work may be performed from any location, most conveniently the
worker's home. It can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to communicate
over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel time and cost. More workers have
adequate bandwidth at home to use these tools to link their home to their corporate intranet and
internal communication networks.

Collaborative publishing

Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information
across institutional and international boundaries.[141] In those settings, they have been found useful
for collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee
work.[142] The United States Patent and Trademark Office uses a wiki to allow the public to
collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications. Queens, New
York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park.[143]
The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web[144] and ranks
in the top 10 among all sites in terms of traffic.[145]

Politics and political revolutions

Banner in Bangkok during the 2014

Thai coup d'état, informing the Thai
public that 'like' or 'share' activities on
social media could result in
imprisonment (observed 30 June
2014)

The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard
Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet.
Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for carrying out their
mission, having given rise to Internet activism.[146][147] The New York Times suggested that social
media websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people organize the political revolutions in
Egypt, by helping activists organize protests, communicate grievances, and disseminate
information.[148]
Many have understood the Internet as an extension of the Habermasian notion of the public sphere,
observing how network communication technologies provide something like a global civic forum.
However, incidents of politically motivated Internet censorship have now been recorded in many
countries, including western democracies.[149][150]

E-government is the use of technological communications devices, such as the Internet, to provide
public services to citizens and other persons in a country or region. E-government offers
opportunities for more direct and convenient citizen access to government[151] and for government
provision of services directly to citizens.[152]

Philanthropy

The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for
peer-to-peer charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for
other individuals. Websites, such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, allow small-scale donors to
direct funds to individual projects of their choice. A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is
the use of peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes. Kiva pioneered this concept in 2005,
offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding. Kiva raises funds
for local intermediary microfinance organizations that post stories and updates on behalf of the
borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice and receive their money
back as borrowers repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are
disbursed before being funded by lenders and borrowers do not communicate with lenders
themselves.[153][154]

Security

Internet resources, hardware, and software components are the target of criminal or malicious
attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause interruptions, commit fraud, engage in blackmail or
access private information.[155]

Malware

Malware is malicious software used and distributed via the Internet. It includes computer viruses
which are copied with the help of humans, computer worms which copy themselves automatically,
software for denial of service attacks, ransomware, botnets, and spyware that reports on the activity
and typing of users. Usually, these activities constitute cybercrime. Defense theorists have also
speculated about the possibilities of hackers using cyber warfare using similar methods on a large
scale.[156]

Malware poses serious problems to individuals and businesses on the Internet.[157][158] According to
Symantec's 2018 Internet Security Threat Report (ISTR), malware variants number has increased to
669,947,865 in 2017, which is twice as many malware variants as in 2016.[159] Cybercrime, which
includes malware attacks as well as other crimes committed by computer, was predicted to cost the
world economy US$6 trillion in 2021, and is increasing at a rate of 15% per year.[160] Since 2021,
malware has been designed to target computer systems that run critical infrastructure such as the
electricity distribution network.[161][162] Malware can be designed to evade antivirus software
detection algorithms.[163][164][165]

Surveillance

The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on the
Internet.[166] In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance For Law
Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant
messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law
enforcement agencies.[167][168][169] Packet capture is the monitoring of data traffic on a computer
network. Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images,
videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called "packets", which are routed through a
network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a
complete "message" again. Packet Capture Appliance intercepts these packets as they are traveling
through the network, in order to examine their contents using other programs. A packet capture is
an information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool. That is it gathers "messages" but it does not
analyze them and figure out what they mean. Other programs are needed to perform traffic analysis
and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful information. Under the
Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act all U.S. telecommunications providers are
required to install packet sniffing technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence
agencies to intercept all of their customers' broadband Internet and VoIP traffic.[170]

The large amount of data gathered from packet capture requires surveillance software that filters
and reports relevant information, such as the use of certain words or phrases, the access to certain
types of web sites, or communicating via email or chat with certain parties.[171] Agencies, such as
the Information Awareness Office, NSA, GCHQ and the FBI, spend billions of dollars per year to
develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems for interception and analysis of data.[172]
Similar systems are operated by Iranian secret police to identify and suppress dissidents. The
required hardware and software were allegedly installed by German Siemens AG and Finnish
Nokia.[173]

Censorship

Internet censorship and surveillance by country

(2018)[174][175][c][176][177]

Pervasive Selective
Substantial Little or none
Unclassified / No data

Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, Mainland China, Saudi Arabia and
the United Arab Emirates, restrict access to content on the Internet within their territories, especially
to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword filters.[178]

In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service providers have voluntarily agreed
to restrict access to sites listed by authorities. While this list of forbidden resources is supposed to
contain only known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret.[179] Many countries,
including the United States, have enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain
material, such as child pornography, via the Internet but do not mandate filter software. Many free or
commercially available software programs, called content-control software are available to users to
block offensive websites on individual computers or networks in order to limit access by children to
pornographic material or depiction of violence.

Performance

As the Internet is a heterogeneous network, its physical characteristics, including, for example the
data transfer rates of connections, vary widely. It exhibits emergent phenomena that depend on its
large-scale organization.[180]

Traffic volume

Global Internet Traffic as of 2018

The volume of Internet traffic is difficult to measure because no single point of measurement exists
in the multi-tiered, non-hierarchical topology. Traffic data may be estimated from the aggregate
volume through the peering points of the Tier 1 network providers, but traffic that stays local in large
provider networks may not be accounted for.

Outages

An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling interruptions. Disruptions of

submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in
the 2008 submarine cable disruption. Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to the
small number of high-capacity links. Land cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman
digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of Armenia.[181] Internet blackouts
affecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of Internet censorship,
as in the blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby approximately 93%[182] of networks were without
access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests.[183]

Energy use

Estimates of the Internet's electricity usage have been the subject of controversy, according to a
2014 peer-reviewed research paper that found claims differing by a factor of 20,000 published in the
literature during the preceding decade, ranging from 0.0064 kilowatt hours per gigabyte transferred
(kWh/GB) to 136 kWh/GB.[184] The researchers attributed these discrepancies mainly to the year of
reference (i.e. whether efficiency gains over time had been taken into account) and to whether "end
devices such as personal computers and servers are included" in the analysis.[184]

In 2011, academic researchers estimated the overall energy used by the Internet to be between 170
and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate included the
energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion
smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers,
optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet
traffic.[185][186] According to a non-peer-reviewed study published in 2018 by The Shift Project (a
French think tank funded by corporate sponsors), nearly 4% of global CO2 emissions could be
attributed to global data transfer and the necessary infrastructure.[187] The study also said that
online video streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore contributed to
over 300 million tons of CO2 emission per year, and argued for new "digital sobriety" regulations
restricting the use and size of video files.[188]

See also

Crowdfunding
Internet portal
Crowdsourcing
World portal

Cyberspace

Darknet

Deep web

Hyphanet

Internet industry jargon

Index of Internet-related articles

Internet metaphors

Internet video

"Internets"

Outline of the Internet

Notes

a. See Capitalization of Internet

b. Despite the name, TCP/IP also includes UDP traffic, which is significant.[1]

c. Due to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not check for filtering of child pornography
and because their classifications focus on technical filtering, they do not include other types of
censorship.

References

1. Amogh Dhamdhere. "Internet Traffic Characterization" (https://www.cc.gatech.edu/~dovrolis/C

 . og a d e e. te et a c C a acte at o ( ttps:// .cc.gatec .edu/ do o s/C
ourses/8803_F03/amogh.ppt) . Retrieved 6 May 2022.

2. "A Flaw in the Design" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2015/05/30/net-of-inse

curity-part-1/) . The Washington Post. 30 May 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0201108111512/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/business/2015/05/30/net-of-insecurity-
part-1/) from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020. "The Internet
was born of a big idea: Messages could be chopped into chunks, sent through a network in a
series of transmissions, then reassembled by destination computers quickly and efficiently.
Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer
Paul Baran. ... The most important institutional force ... was the Pentagon's Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) ... as ARPA began work on a groundbreaking computer
network, the agency recruited scientists affiliated with the nation's top universities."

3. Yates, David M. (1997). Turing's Legacy: A History of Computing at the National Physical
Laboratory 1945-1995 (https://books.google.com/books?id=ToMfAQAAIAAJ&q=packet+switc
h) . National Museum of Science and Industry. pp. 132–4. ISBN 978-0-901805-94-2. "Davies's
invention of packet switching and design of computer communication networks ... were a
cornerstone of the development which led to the Internet"

4. Abbate 1999, p. 3 (https://books.google.com/books?id=9BfZxFZpElwC&pg=PA3) "The

manager of the ARPANET project, Lawrence Roberts, assembled a large team of computer
scientists ... and he drew on the ideas of network experimenters in the United States and the
United Kingdom. Cerf and Kahn also enlisted the help of computer scientists from England,
France and the United States"

5. "The Computer History Museum, SRI International, and BBN Celebrate the 40th Anniversary of
First ARPANET Transmission, Precursor to Today's Internet" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
90329134941/https://www.sri.com/newsroom/press-releases/computer-history-museum-sri-i
nternational-and-bbn-celebrate-40th-anniversary) . SRI International. 27 October 2009.
Archived from the original (https://www.sri.com/newsroom/press-releases/computer-history-
museum-sri-international-and-bbn-celebrate-40th-anniversary) on 29 March 2019. Retrieved
25 September 2017. "But the ARPANET itself had now become an island, with no links to the
other networks that had sprung up. By the early 1970s, researchers in France, the UK, and the
U.S. began developing ways of connecting networks to each other, a process known as
internetworking."
 6. by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba (1993). "How the Internet Came to Be" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20170926042220/http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tmp/cdrom-oss/CerfHo
wInternetCame2B.html) . Archived from the original (http://elk.informatik.hs-augsburg.de/tm
p/cdrom-oss/CerfHowInternetCame2B.html) on 26 September 2017. Retrieved
25 September 2017. "We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and
University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international
from the beginning."

7. Stewart, Bill (January 2000). "Internet History – One Page Summary" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20140702210150/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_summary.htm) . The Living Internet.
Archived from the original (http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_summary.htm) on 2 July 2014.

8. Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Oxford
University Press. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-7394-7809-7.

9. "#3 1982: the ARPANET community grows" in 40 maps that explain the internet (https://www.v
ox.com/a/internet-maps) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170306161657/http://w
ww.vox.com/a/internet-maps) 6 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Timothy B. Lee, Vox
Conversations, 2 June 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2014.

10. Strickland, Jonathan (3 March 2008). "How Stuff Works: Who owns the Internet?" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20140619070159/http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/basics/who-
owns-internet.htm) . Archived from the original (http://computer.howstuffworks.com/interne
t/basics/who-owns-internet.htm) on 19 June 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2014.

11. Hoffman, P.; Harris, S. (September 2006). The Tao of IETF: A Novice's Guide to Internet
Engineering Task Force (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4677) . IETF.
doi:10.17487/RFC4677 (https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC4677) . RFC 4677 (https://datatrack
er.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4677) .

12. "New Seven Wonders panel" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100715032114/http://www.usato

day.com/travel/news/2006-10-26-seven-wonders-experts_x.htm) . USA Today. 27 October
2006. Archived from the original (https://www.usatoday.com/travel/news/2006-10-26-seven-w
onders-experts_x.htm) on 15 July 2010. Retrieved 31 July 2010.

13. "Internetted" (https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Internetted) . Oxford English

Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution
membership (https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.) nineteenth-
century use as an adjective.
14. "United States Army Field Manual FM 24-6 Radio Operator's Manual Army Ground Forces June
1945" (https://archive.org/details/Fm24-6/mode/2up) . United States War Department. 18
September 2023.

15. Cerf, Vint; Dalal, Yogen; Sunshine, Carl (December 1974). Specification of Internet
Transmission Control Protocol (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675) . IETF.
doi:10.17487/RFC0675 (https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC0675) . RFC 675 (https://datatracke
r.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc675) .

16. Corbett, Philip B. (1 June 2016). "It's Official: The 'Internet' Is Over" (https://www.nytimes.com/2
016/06/02/insider/now-it-is-official-the-internet-is-over.html) . The New York Times.
ISSN 0362-4331 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331) . Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20201014142148/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/02/insider/now-it-is-official-t
he-internet-is-over.html) from the original on 14 October 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.

17. Herring, Susan C. (19 October 2015). "Should You Be Capitalizing the Word 'Internet'?" (https://
www.wired.com/2015/10/should-you-be-capitalizing-the-word-internet/) . Wired. ISSN 1059-
1028 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0201031024342/https://www.wired.com/2015/10/should-you-be-capitalizing-the-word-interne
t/) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.

18. Coren, Michael J. (2 June 2016). "One of the internet's inventors thinks it should still be
capitalized" (https://qz.com/698175/one-of-the-internets-inventors-thinks-it-should-still-be-capi
talized/) . Quartz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200927102759/https://qz.com/6
98175/one-of-the-internets-inventors-thinks-it-should-still-be-capitalized/) from the original
on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.

19. "World Wide Web Timeline" (http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/03/11/world-wide-web-timelin

e/) . Pews Research Center. 11 March 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015072
9162322/http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/03/11/world-wide-web-timeline/) from the
original on 29 July 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.

20. "HTML 4.01 Specification" (http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/struct/links.html#h-12.1) . World

Wide Web Consortium. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081006131915/http://www.w
3.org/TR/html401/struct/links.html) from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved
13 August 2008. "[T]he link (or hyperlink, or Web link) [is] the basic hypertext construct. A link is
a connection from one Web resource to another. Although a simple concept, the link has been
one of the primary forces driving the success of the Web."
21. Waldrop, Mitch (2015). "DARPA and the Internet Revolution" (https://www.darpa.mil/attachmen
ts/(2O15)%20Global%20Nav%20-%20About%20Us%20-%20History%20-%20Resources%20-%2
050th%20-%20Internet%20(Approved).pdf) (PDF). darpa.mil. Retrieved 16 May 2024.

22. Lee, J.A.N.; Rosin, Robert F (1992). "Time-Sharing at MIT" (https://archive.org/details/time-shar

ing-at-mit) . IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 14 (1): 16. doi:10.1109/85.145316 (http
s://doi.org/10.1109%2F85.145316) . ISSN 1058-6180 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1058-
6180) . S2CID 30976386 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30976386) . Retrieved
3 October 2022.

23. F. J. Corbató, et al., The Compatible Time-Sharing System A Programmer's Guide (http://www.b
itsavers.org/pdf/mit/ctss/CTSS_ProgrammersGuide.pdf) (MIT Press, 1963) ISBN 978-0-262-
03008-3. "To establish the context of the present work, it is informative to trace the
development of time-sharing at MIT. Shortly after the first paper on time-shared computers by
C. Strachey at the June 1959 UNESCO Information Processing conference, H.M. Teager and J.
McCarthy delivered an unpublished paper "Time-Shared Program Testing" at the August 1959
ACM Meeting."

24. "Inductee Details – Paul Baran" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170906091231/http://www.inv

ent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=316) . National Inventors Hall of Fame.
Archived from the original (http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=316)
on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2017; "Inductee Details – Donald Watts Davies"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170906091936/http://www.invent.org/honor/inductees/induc
tee-detail/?IID=328) . National Inventors Hall of Fame. Archived from the original (http://www.
invent.org/honor/inductees/inductee-detail/?IID=328) on 6 September 2017. Retrieved
6 September 2017.

25. Hauben, Michael; Hauben, Ronda (1997). "5 The Vision of Interactive Computing And the
Future". Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet (http://www.columbia.
edu/~hauben/book-pdf/CHAPTER%205.pdf) (PDF). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-8186-7706-9. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20210103184558/http://www.columbia.edu/~hauben/book-pdf/
CHAPTER%205.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2020.

26. Zelnick, Bob; Zelnick, Eva (2013). The Illusion of Net Neutrality: Political Alarmism, Regulatory
Creep and the Real Threat to Internet Freedom (https://books.google.com/books?id=Q10phY8
11tUC&pg=PA66) . Hoover Press. ISBN 978-0-8179-1596-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20210110133435/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q10phY811tUC&pg=PA66) from
the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
27. Peter, Ian (2004). "So, who really did invent the Internet?" (https://web.archive.org/web/201109
03001108/http://www.nethistory.info/History%20of%20the%20Internet/origins.html) . The
Internet History Project. Archived from the original (http://www.nethistory.info/History%20of%2
0the%20Internet/origins.html) on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2014.

28. Gromov, Gregory (1995). "Roads and Crossroads of Internet History" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20160127082435/http://www.netvalley.com/intval.html) . Archived from the original (htt
p://www.netvalley.com/intval.html) on 27 January 2016.

29. Hafner, Katie (1998). Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet. Simon &
Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-83267-8.

30. Hauben, Ronda (2001). "From the ARPANET to the Internet" (http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/
other/tcpdigest_paper.txt) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090721093920/http://w
ww.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt) from the original on 21 July 2009.
Retrieved 28 May 2009.

31. "Internet Pioneers Discuss the Future of Money, Books, and Paper in 1972" (https://paleofuture.
gizmodo.com/internet-pioneers-discuss-the-future-of-money-books-a-880551175) .
Paleofuture. 23 July 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201017141323/https://pa
leofuture.gizmodo.com/internet-pioneers-discuss-the-future-of-money-books-a-880551175)
from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 31 August 2020.

32. Townsend, Anthony (2001). "The Internet and the Rise of the New Network Cities, 1969–1999"
(http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1068/b2688) . Environment and Planning B: Planning
and Design. 28 (1): 39–58. Bibcode:2001EnPlB..28...39T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
001EnPlB..28...39T) . doi:10.1068/b2688 (https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fb2688) . ISSN 0265-
8135 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0265-8135) . S2CID 11574572 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:11574572) .

33. Kim, Byung-Keun (2005). Internationalising the Internet the Co-evolution of Influence and
Technology (https://books.google.com/books?id=lESrw3neDokC) . Edward Elgar. pp. 51–55.
ISBN 978-1-84542-675-0.

34. "NORSAR and the Internet" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130121220318/http://www.norsar.

no/norsar/about-us/History/Internet/) . NORSAR. Archived from the original (http://www.nors
ar.no/norsar/about-us/History/Internet/) on 21 January 2013.
35. Kirstein, P.T. (1999). "Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom" (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20200207092443/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4773/f19792f9
fce8eacba72e5f8c2a021414e52d.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 21
(1): 38–44. doi:10.1109/85.759368 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2F85.759368) . ISSN 1934-1547
(https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1934-1547) . S2CID 1558618 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
rg/CorpusID:1558618) . Archived from the original (https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4773/f1
9792f9fce8eacba72e5f8c2a021414e52d.pdf) (PDF) on 7 February 2020.

36. Leiner, Barry M. "Brief History of the Internet: The Initial Internetting Concepts" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20160409105511/http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-i
nternet/brief-history-internet) . Internet Society. Archived from the original (https://www.intern
etsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet#concepts) on 9
April 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2014.

37. Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" (https://www.cs.
princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Transactions
on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259 (https://doi.org/10.1
109%2FTCOM.1974.1092259) . ISSN 1558-0857 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-085
7) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060913213037/https://www.cs.princeton.edu/c
ourses/archive/fall06/cos561/papers/cerf74.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 13 September
2006. "The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early
discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D.
Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the
fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and
destruction of associations."

38. "The internet's fifth man" (https://www.economist.com/news/technology-quarterly/21590765-l

ouis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its) . The Economist. 30
November 2013. ISSN 0013-0613 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613) . Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20200419230318/https://www.economist.com/news/technology-q
uarterly/21590765-louis-pouzin-helped-create-internet-now-he-campaigning-ensure-its) from
the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 22 April 2020. "In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an
innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and
efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but
millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of
its design in the protocols that now power the internet."

39. Schatt, Stan (1991). Linking LANs: A Micro Manager's Guide. McGraw-Hill. p. 200. ISBN 0-8306-
3755-9.
40. Frazer, Karen D. (1995). "NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking, Final Report
1987–1995" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150210181738/http://www.merit.edu/about/hist
ory/pdf/NSFNET_final.pdf) (PDF). Merit Network, Inc. Archived from the original (http://www.
merit.edu/about/history/pdf/NSFNET_final.pdf) (PDF) on 10 February 2015.

41. Ben Segal (1995). "A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20230608153730/http://ben.web.cern.ch/ben/TCPHIST.html) . Archived from the original
(http://www.cern.ch/ben/TCPHIST.html) on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 14 October 2011.

42. Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE)

43. "Internet History in Asia" (http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm) . 16th

APAN Meetings/Advanced Network Conference in Busan. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20060201035514/http://apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm) from the original on
1 February 2006. Retrieved 25 December 2005.

44. "The History of NORDUnet" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031416/http://www.nordu.

net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://ww
w.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf) (PDF) on 4 March 2016.

45. Clarke, Roger. "Origins and Nature of the Internet in Australia" (http://www.rogerclarke.com/II/O
zI04.html#CIAP) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210209201253/http://www.roger
clarke.com/II/OzI04.html#CIAP) from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 21 January
2014.

46. Zakon, Robert (November 1997). RFC 2235 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2235#pag

e-8) . IETF. p. 8. doi:10.17487/RFC2235 (https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2235) . Retrieved
2 December 2020.

47. "InfoWorld" (https://books.google.com/books?id=wDAEAAAAMBAJ&q=compuserve%20to%20

mci%20mail%20internet&pg=PT31) . 25 September 1989. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170129225422/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT31&lpg
=PT31&dq=compuserve%20to%20mci%20mail%20internet) from the original on 29 January
2017 – via Google Books.

48. "INTERNET MONTHLY REPORTS" (https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525080041/ftp://ft

p.cuhk.edu.hk/pub/doc/internet/Internet.Monthly.Report/imr9002.txt) . February 1990.
Archived from the original (http://ftp.cuhk.edu.hk/pub/doc/internet/Internet.Monthly.Report/im
r9002.txt) on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
49. Berners-Lee, Tim. "The Original HTTP as defined in 1991" (https://web.archive.org/web/199706
05071155/http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/AsImplemented.html) . W3C.org. Archived
from the original (http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/AsImplemented.html) on 5 June 1997.

50. "The website of the world's first-ever web server" (https://web.archive.org/web/201001051035

13/http://info.cern.ch/) . info.cern.ch. Archived from the original (http://info.cern.ch/) on 5
January 2010.

51. "Stanford Federal Credit Union Pioneers Online Financial Services" (http://www.thefreelibrary.c
om/Stanford+Federal+Credit+Union+Pioneers+Online+Financial+Services.-a017104850)
(Press release). 21 June 1995. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181221041632/http
s://www.thefreelibrary.com/Stanford+Federal+Credit+Union+Pioneers+Online+Financial+Servi
ces.-a017104850) from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.

52. "History – About us – OP Group" (https://www.op.fi/op-financial-group/about-us/op-financial-g

roup-in-brief/history) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181221041413/https://www.
op.fi/op-financial-group/about-us/op-financial-group-in-brief/history) from the original on 21
December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.

53. Harris, Susan R.; Gerich, Elise (April 1996). "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling
the End of an Era" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130817124939/http://merit.edu/research/n
sfnet_article.php) . ConneXions. 10 (4). Archived from the original (http://www.merit.edu/rese
arch/nsfnet_article.php) on 17 August 2013.

54. "Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2023" (https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statisti

cs/Pages/facts/default.aspx) . Telecommunication Development Bureau, International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 14 June 2024.

55. "Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050" " (https://web.archive.org/web/20170417
134744/https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldpoptotal.php) .
International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau.
Archived from the original (https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldp
optotal.php) on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2020.

56. Jindal, R. P. (2009). "From millibits to terabits per second and beyond - over 60 years of
innovation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190823230141/https://events.vtools.ieee.org/m/1
95547) . 2009 2nd International Workshop on Electron Devices and Semiconductor
Technology. Vol. 49. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/EDST.2009.5166093 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FED
ST.2009.5166093) . ISBN 978-1-4244-3831-0. S2CID 25112828 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
rg/CorpusID:25112828) . Archived from the original (https://events.vtools.ieee.org/m/19554
7) on 23 August 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
57. Ward, Mark (3 August 2006). "How the web went world wide" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
11121092636/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5242252.stm) . Technology
Correspondent. BBC News. Archived from the original (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nat
ure/5242252.stm) on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2011.

58. "Brazil, Russia, India and China to Lead Internet Growth Through 2011" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20081004000237/http://www.clickz.com/showPage.html?page=3626274) .
Clickz.com. Archived from the original (http://clickz.com/showPage.html?page=3626274) on
4 October 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2009.

59. Coffman, K.G; Odlyzko, A.M. (2 October 1998). "The size and growth rate of the Internet" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20070614012344/http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/internet.si
ze.pdf) (PDF). AT&T Labs. Archived from the original (http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/do
c/internet.size.pdf) (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2007.

60. Comer, Douglas (2006). The Internet book (https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00com

e_0/page/64) . Prentice Hall. p. 64 (https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0/pa
ge/64) . ISBN 978-0-13-233553-9.

61. "World Internet Users and Population Stats" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110623200007/ht

tp://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm) . Internet World Stats. Miniwatts Marketing
Group. 22 June 2011. Archived from the original (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.ht
m) on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2011.

62. Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (April 2011). "The World's Technological Capacity to Store,
Communicate, and Compute Information" (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200970) .
Science. 332 (6025): 60–65. Bibcode:2011Sci...332...60H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
011Sci...332...60H) . doi:10.1126/science.1200970 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1200
970) . PMID 21310967 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21310967) . S2CID 206531385 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206531385) .

63. Klein, Hans (2004). "ICANN and Non-Territorial Sovereignty: Government Without the Nation
State" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130524035251/http://www.ip3.gatech.edu/research/KL
EIN_ICANN%2BSovereignty.doc) . Internet and Public Policy Project. Georgia Institute of
Technology. Archived from the original (http://www.ip3.gatech.edu/research/KLEIN_ICANN%2
BSovereignty.doc) on 24 May 2013.

64. Packard, Ashley (2010). Digital Media Law. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4051-8169-3.
65. McCarthy, Kieren (1 July 2005). "Bush administration annexes internet" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20110919130539/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/07/01/bush_net_policy/) . The
Register. Archived from the original (https://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/07/01/bush_net_poli
cy/) on 19 September 2011.

66. Mueller, Milton L. (2010). Networks and States: The Global Politics of Internet Governance. MIT
Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-262-01459-5.

67. "ICG Applauds Transfer of IANA Stewardship" (https://www.ianacg.org/icg-applauds-transfer-o

f-iana-stewardship/) . IANA Stewardship Transition Coordination Group (ICG). Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20170712190131/https://www.ianacg.org/icg-applauds-transfer-of-ia
na-stewardship/) from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017.

68. "Internet Society (ISOC) All About The Internet: History of the Internet" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20111127114016/http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/isochistory.shtml) . ISOC.
Archived from the original (http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/isochistory.shtml) on 27
November 2011. Retrieved 19 December 2013.

69. Pasternak, Sean B. (7 March 2006). "Toronto Hydro to Install Wireless Network in Downtown
Toronto" (https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000082&sid=aQ0ZfhMa4XGQ) .
Bloomberg. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060410104717/http://www.bloomberg.c
om/apps/news?pid=10000082&sid=aQ0ZfhMa4XGQ) from the original on 10 April 2006.
Retrieved 8 August 2011.

70. "Mobile and Tablet Internet Usage Exceeds Desktop for First Time Worldwide" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20161101170640/http://gs.statcounter.com/press/mobile-and-tablet-internet-us
age-exceeds-desktop-for-first-time-worldwide) . StatCounter: Global Stats, Press Release. 1
November 2016. Archived from the original (http://gs.statcounter.com/press/mobile-and-tablet
-internet-usage-exceeds-desktop-for-first-time-worldwide) on 1 November 2016. "StatCounter
Global Stats finds that mobile and tablet devices accounted for 51.3% of Internet usage
worldwide in October compared to 48.7% by desktop."

71. "World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database 2020 (24th Edition/July 2020)" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20190421072228/https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/publicatio
ns/wtid.aspx) . International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 2017a. Archived from the
original (https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/publications/wtid.aspx) on 21 April
2019. "Key ICT indicators for developed and developing countries and the world (totals and
penetration rates). World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database"
72. World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018 (htt
p://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf) (PDF). UNESCO. 2018.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180920181419/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/
0026/002610/261065e.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved
29 May 2018.

73. "GSMA The Mobile Economy 2019" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190311062226/https://ww

w.gsma.com/r/mobileeconomy/) . 11 March 2019. Archived from the original (https://www.g
sma.com/r/mobileeconomy/) on 11 March 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2020.

74. Galpaya, Helani (12 April 2019). "Zero-rating in Emerging Economies" (https://www.cigionline.o
rg/sites/default/files/documents/GCIG%20no.47_1.pdf) (PDF). Global Commission on
Internet Governance. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190412062932/https://www.ci
gionline.org/sites/default/files/documents/GCIG%20no.47_1.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
12 April 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2020.

75. "Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI). 2015. Models of Mobile Data Services in Developing
Countries. Research brief. The Impacts of Emerging Mobile Data Services in Developing
Countries" (http://a4ai.org/the-impacts-of-emerging-mobiledata-services-in-developing-countri
es/) .

76. Gillwald, Alison; Chair, Chenai; Futter, Ariel; Koranteng, Kweku; Odufuwa, Fola; Walubengo, John
(12 September 2016). "Much Ado About Nothing? Zero Rating in the African Context" (https://r
esearchictafrica.net/publications/Other_publications/2016_RIA_Zero-Rating_Policy_Paper_-_M
uch_ado_about_nothing.pdf) (PDF). Researchictafrica. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20201216150858/https://researchictafrica.net/publications/Other_publications/2016_RIA_Z
ero-Rating_Policy_Paper_-_Much_ado_about_nothing.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 16
December 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020.

77. J. Postel, ed. (September 1981). Internet Protocol, DARPA Internet Program Protocol
Specification (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc791) . IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0791 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC0791) . RFC 791 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc79
1) . Updated by RFC 1349 (https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1349) , 2474 (https://www.rfc-ed
itor.org/rfc/rfc2474) , 6864 (https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6864)

78. Huston, Geoff. "IPv4 Address Report, daily generated" (http://www.potaroo.net/tools/ipv4/inde

x.html) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090401001902/http://www.potaroo.net/to
ols/ipv4/index.html) from the original on 1 April 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
79. S. Deering; R. Hinden (December 1995). Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification (http
s://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1883) . Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC1883
(https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1883) . RFC 1883 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc
1883) .

80. S. Deering; R. Hinden (December 1998). Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification (http
s://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2460) . Network Working Group. doi:10.17487/RFC2460
(https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC2460) . RFC 2460 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc
2460) .

81. S. Deering; R. Hinden (July 2017). Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification (https://data
tracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8200) . IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC8200 (https://doi.org/10.17487%2
FRFC8200) . RFC 8200 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8200) .

82. "Notice of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) Address Depletion" (https://web.archive.org/web/2

0100107095025/https://www.arin.net/knowledge/about_resources/ceo_letter.pdf) (PDF).
Archived from the original (https://www.arin.net/knowledge/about_resources/ceo_letter.pdf)
(PDF) on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2009.

83. Jeffrey Mogul; Jon Postel (August 1985). Internet Standard Subnetting Procedure (https://data
tracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc950) . IETF. doi:10.17487/RFC0950 (https://doi.org/10.17487%2F
RFC0950) . RFC 950 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc950) . Updated by RFC 6918.

84. Fisher, Tim. "How to Find Your Default Gateway IP Address" (https://www.lifewire.com/how-to-f
ind-your-default-gateway-ip-address-2626072) . Lifewire. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20190225162425/https://www.lifewire.com/how-to-find-your-default-gateway-ip-address-2
626072) from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.

85. "Default Gateway" (https://web.archive.org/web/20201026160616/https://www.techopedia.co

m/definition/2184/default-gateway) . techopedia.com. 30 June 2020. Archived from the
original (https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2184/default-gateway) on 26 October 2020.

86. "IETF Home Page" (http://www.ietf.org/) . Ietf.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200

90618032558/http://www.ietf.org/) from the original on 18 June 2009. Retrieved 20 June
2009.

87. "The Difference Between the Internet and the World Wide Web" (http://www.webopedia.com/Di
dYouKnow/Internet/Web_vs_Internet.asp) . Webopedia. QuinStreet Inc. 24 June 2010.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140502001005/http://www.webopedia.com/DidYou
Know/Internet/Web_vs_Internet.asp) from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
88. "IAB Internet advertising revenue report: 2012 full year results" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0141004001439/http://www.iab.net/media/file/IAB_Internet_Advertising_Revenue_Report_FY_
2012_rev.pdf) (PDF). PricewaterhouseCoopers, Internet Advertising Bureau. April 2013.
Archived from the original (http://www.iab.net/media/file/IAB_Internet_Advertising_Revenue_R
eport_FY_2012_rev.pdf) (PDF) on 4 October 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2013.

89. Brown, Ron (26 October 1972). "Fax invades the mail market" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=Ry64sjvOmLkC&pg=PA218) . New Scientist. 56 (817): 218–221.

90. Luckett, Herbert P. (March 1973). "What's News: Electronic-mail delivery gets started" (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=cKSqa8u3EIoC&pg=PA85) . Popular Science. 202 (3): 85.

91. Booth, C (2010). "Chapter 2: IP Phones, Software VoIP, and Integrated and Mobile VoIP". Library
Technology Reports. 46 (5): 11–19.

92. Morrison, Geoff (18 November 2010). "What to know before buying a 'connected' TV –
Technology & science – Tech and gadgets – Tech Holiday Guide" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20200212091603/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/40241749) . NBC News. Archived from the
original (http://www.nbcnews.com/id/40241749) on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 8 August
2011.

93. "Press" (https://www.youtube.com/about/press/) . YouTube. Archived (https://web.archive.or

g/web/20171111094352/https://www.youtube.com/yt/about/press/) from the original on 11
November 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2020.

94. "YouTube now defaults to HTML5" (https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2015/01/youtube-no

w-defaults-to-html5_27.html) . YouTube Engineering and Developers Blog. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20180910204225/https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2015/01/youtube-
now-defaults-to-html5_27.html) from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved
10 September 2018.

95. Carlson, Kathie; Flanagin, Michael N.; Martin, Kathleen; Martin, Mary E.; Mendelsohn, John;
Rodgers, Priscilla Young; Ronnberg, Ami; Salman, Sherry; Wesley, Deborah A. (2010). Arm,
Karen; Ueda, Kako; Thulin, Anne; Langerak, Allison; Kiley, Timothy Gus; Wolff, Mary (eds.). The
Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images. Köln: Taschen. p. 518. ISBN 978-3-8365-
1448-4.

96. Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2 October 2017). "Technology Adoption" (https://ourworldindata.o
rg/technology-adoption) . Our World in Data. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019101
2121855/https://ourworldindata.org/technology-adoption) from the original on 12 October
2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
 97. "Individuals using the Internet 2005 to 2014" (http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Document
s/statistics/2014/ITU_Key_2005-2014_ICT_data.xls) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20150528031339/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2014/ITU_Key_
2005-2014_ICT_data.xls) 28 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Key ICT indicators for
developed and developing countries and the world (totals and penetration rates), International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 25 May 2015.

98. "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 1997 to 2007" (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/ict/)

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150517033104/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistic
s/ict/) 17 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 25 May 2015.

99. Internet users graphs (https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/) Archived (https://

web.archive.org/web/20200509175322/https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/de
fault.aspx) 9 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Market Information and Statistics,
International Telecommunication Union

100. "Google Earth demonstrates how technology benefits RI's civil society, govt" (http://www.antara
news.com/en/news/71940/google-earth-demonstrates-how-technology-benefits-ris-civil-socie
ty-govt) . Antara News. 26 May 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2012102907452
8/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/71940/google-earth-demonstrates-how-technology-b
enefits-ris-civil-society-govt) from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 19 November
2012.

101. Steve Dent (25 November 2014). "There are now 3 billion Internet users, mostly in rich
countries" (https://www.engadget.com/2014/11/25/3-billion-internet-users/) . Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20141128020032/http://www.engadget.com/2014/11/25/3-billion-in
ternet-users/) from the original on 28 November 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.

102. "Statistical Report on Internet Development in China" (https://cnnic.com.cn/IDR/ReportDownlo

ads/201807/P020180711391069195909.pdf) (PDF). Cnnic.com. January 2018. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20190412062935/https://cnnic.com.cn/IDR/ReportDownloads/201
807/P020180711391069195909.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019.

103. "World Internet Users Statistics and 2019 World Population Stats" (https://www.internetworldst
ats.com/stats.htm) . internetworldstats.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201711
24192836/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm) from the original on 24 November
2017. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
104. "World Internet Usage Statistics News and Population Stats" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
70319013935/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm) . 30 June 2023. Archived from
the original (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm) on 19 March 2017. Retrieved
14 December 2023.

105. "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000–2012" (http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistic

s/Documents/statistics/2013/Individuals_Internet_2000-2012.xls) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20140209141641/http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/
2013/Individuals_Internet_2000-2012.xls) 9 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine,
International Telecommunication Union (Geneva), June 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2013.

106. "World Internet Users Statistics and 2023 World Population Stats" (https://www.internetworldst
ats.com/stats.htm) . Internet World Stats. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202403191
10853/https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm) from the original on 19 March 2024.

107. "Top Ten Internet Languages" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120426122721/http://www.inter

networldstats.com/stats7.htm) . Internet World Stats, Miniwatts Marketing Group. 18 March
2012. Archived from the original (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm) on 26 April
2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012.

108. Fallows, Deborah (28 December 2005). "How Women and Men Use the Internet" (https://www.p
ewresearch.org/internet/2005/12/28/how-women-and-men-use-the-internet/) . Pew Research
Center. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230608191432/https://www.pewresearch.or
g/internet/2005/12/28/how-women-and-men-use-the-internet/) from the original on 8 June
2023.

109. "Rapleaf Study Reveals Gender and Age Data of Social Network Users" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20090320211742/http://business.rapleaf.com/company_press_2008_07_29.html) .
Rapleaf. 29 July 2008. Archived from the original (http://business.rapleaf.com/company_press
_2008_07_29.html) on 20 March 2009.

110. "Women Ahead of Men in Online Tv, Dvr, Games, And Social Media" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080916094836/http://www.entrepreneur.com/tradejournals/article/178175272.html) .
Entrepreneur. 1 May 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.entrepreneur.com/tradejourn
als/article/178175272.html) on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2011.

111. "State of the Blogosphere" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091002101707/http://technorati.co

m/blogging/state-of-the-blogosphere/) . Technorati. Archived from the original (http://technor
ati.com/blogging/state-of-the-blogosphere/) on 2 October 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
112. Seese, Michael (2009). Scrappy Information Security (https://books.google.com/books?id=3no
NR3IfSpgC&q=citizen+of+the+net&pg=PA130) . Happy About. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-60005-132-
6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170905151414/https://books.google.com/books?
id=3noNR3IfSpgC&pg=PA130&lpg=PA130&dq=citizen+of+the+net) from the original on 5
September 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2015.

113. "netizen (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/netizen) ", Dictionary.com. Archived (https://

web.archive.org/web/20120421223939/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/netizen) 21
April 2012 at the Wayback Machine.

114. Hauben, Michael (5 June 1996). "The Net and Netizens" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011060
4214312/http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/ch106.x01) . Columbia University. Archived from
the original (http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/ch106.x01) on 4 June 2011.

115. Leiner, B M.; Cerf, V G.; Clark, D D.; Kahn, R E.; Kleinrock, L; Lynch, D C.; Postel, J; Roberts, L G.;
Wolff, S (10 December 2003). "A Brief History of the Internet" (https://web.archive.org/web/200
70604153304/http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml) . the Internet Society.
Archived from the original (http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml) on 4 June 2007.

116. "internaut" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150613002443/https://www.oxforddictionaries.co

m/definition/english/internaut) . Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original (https://www.
oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/internaut) on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 6 June
2015.

117. Mossberger, Karen; Tolbert, Caroline J.; McNeal, Ramona S. (2011). Digital Citizenship – The
Internet, Society and Participation. SPIE Press. ISBN 978-0-8194-5606-9.

118. "Usage of content languages for websites" (http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/conte

nt_language/all) . W3Techs. Archived (https://archive.today/20120717235405/http://w3tech
s.com/technologies/overview/content_language/all) from the original on 17 July 2012.
Retrieved 26 April 2013.

119. "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012" (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/IC

TEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201907
26064920/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx) 26 July
2019 at the Wayback Machine, Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication
Union. Retrieved 29 June 2013.
120. "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012" (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/IC
TEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201907
26064920/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx) 26 July
2019 at the Wayback Machine, Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication
Union. Retrieved 29 June 2013.

121. Reips, U.-D. (2008). "How Internet-mediated research changes science". Psychological aspects
of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications (https://web.archive.org/web/20140809235408/
http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/psychology/social-psychology/psychologic
al-aspects-cyberspace-theory-research-applications) . Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 268–294. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3. Archived from the original (http://www.cambridg
e.org/us/academic/subjects/psychology/social-psychology/psychological-aspects-cyberspac
e-theory-research-applications) on 9 August 2014.

122. "The Virtual Private Nightmare: VPN" (http://librenix.com/?inode=5013) . Librenix. 4 August

2004. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110515152637/http://librenix.com/?inode=50
13) from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2010.

123. Dariusz Jemielniak; Aleksandra Przegalinska (2020). Collaborative Society (https://books.goog

le.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBAJ) . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-35645-9. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20201123045652/https://books.google.com/books?id=yLDMDwAAQBA
J) from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2020.

124. Moore, Keith (27 July 2013). "Twitter 'report abuse' button calls after rape threats" (https://ww
w.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-23477130) . BBC News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20140904014545/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-23477130) from the original on
4 September 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014.

125. Kessler, Sarah (11 October 2010). "5 Fun and Safe Social Networks for Children" (http://masha
ble.com/2010/10/11/social-networks-children/) . Mashable. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20141220082237/http://mashable.com/2010/10/11/social-networks-children/) from
the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014.

126. "Communication in our life" (https://studfile.net/preview/2987063/) . StudFiles (in Russian).

Retrieved 16 May 2023.

127. Goldman, Russell (22 January 2008). "Do It Yourself! Amateur Porn Stars Make Bank" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20111230075056/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/SmallBiz/story?id=
4151592) . ABC News. Archived from the original (https://abcnews.go.com/Business/SmallBi
z/story?id=4151592) on 30 December 2011.
128. Spohn, Dave (15 December 2009). "Top Online Game Trends of the Decade" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20110929074221/http://internetgames.about.com/od/gamingnews/a/trendsdecad
e.htm) . About.com. Archived from the original (http://internetgames.about.com/od/gamingn
ews/a/trendsdecade.htm) on 29 September 2011.

129. Spohn, Dave (2 June 2011). "Internet Game Timeline: 1963–2004" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060425091409/http://internetgames.about.com/od/gamingnews/a/timeline.htm) .
About.com. Archived from the original (http://internetgames.about.com/od/gamingnews/a/ti
meline.htm) on 25 April 2006.

130. Carole Hughes; Boston College. "The Relationship Between Internet Use and Loneliness
Among College Students" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151107031736/https://www2.bc.ed
u/~hughesc/abstract.html) . Boston College. Archived from the original (https://www2.bc.ed
u/~hughesc/abstract.html) on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2011.

131. Barker, Eric (2017). Barking Up the Wrong Tree. HarperCollins. pp. 235–236. ISBN 978-0-06-
241604-9.

132. Thornton, Patricia M. (2003). "The New Cybersects: Resistance and Repression in the Reform
era". In Perry, Elizabeth; Selden, Mark (eds.). Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance
(2 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 149–150. ISBN 978-0-415-56074-0.

133. "Net abuse hits small city firms" (http://www.scotsman.com/news/net-abuse-hits-small-city-fir

ms-1-892163) . The Scotsman. Edinburgh. 11 September 2003. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20121020041820/http://www.scotsman.com/news/net-abuse-hits-small-city-firms-1-
892163) from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2009.

134. Carr, Nicholas G. (2010). The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains (https://archiv
e.org/details/shallowswhatinte0000carr/page/276) . W.W. Norton. p. 276 (https://archive.or
g/details/shallowswhatinte0000carr/page/276) . ISBN 978-0-393-07222-8.

135. "The New Digital Economy: How it will transform business" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014
0706101452/http://www.myclouddoor.com/web/documents/The%20New%20Digital%20Econ
omy.pdf) (PDF). Oxford Economics. 2 July 2011. Archived from the original (http://www.mycl
ouddoor.com/web/documents/The%20New%20Digital%20Economy.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July
2014.

136. Badger, Emily (6 February 2013). "How the Internet Reinforces Inequality in the Real World" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20130211095334/http://www.theatlanticcities.com/technology/201
3/02/how-internet-reinforces-inequality-real-world/4602/) . The Atlantic. Archived from the
original (http://www.theatlanticcities.com/technology/2013/02/how-internet-reinforces-inequa
lity-real-world/4602/) on 11 February 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
137. "E-commerce will make the shopping mall a retail wasteland" (https://www.zdnet.com/article/e
-commerce-will-make-the-shopping-mall-a-retail-wasteland/) . ZDNet. 17 January 2013.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130219011301/http://www.zdnet.com/e-commerce-
will-make-the-shopping-mall-a-retail-wasteland-7000009960/) from the original on 19
February 2013.

138. " 'Free Shipping Day' Promotion Spurs Late-Season Online Spending Surge, Improving Season-
to-Date Growth Rate to 16 Percent vs. Year Ago" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013012819141
1/http://www.comscore.com/Insights/Press_Releases/2012/12/Free_Shipping_Day_Promotio
n_Spurs_Late-Season_Online_Spending_Surge) . Comscore. 23 December 2012. Archived
from the original (http://www.comscore.com/Insights/Press_Releases/2012/12/Free_Shipping
_Day_Promotion_Spurs_Late-Season_Online_Spending_Surge) on 28 January 2013.

139. "The Death of the American Shopping Mall" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130215044619/ht

tp://www.theatlanticcities.com/jobs-and-economy/2012/12/death-american-shopping-mall/42
52/) . The Atlantic – Cities. 26 December 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.theatla
nticcities.com/jobs-and-economy/2012/12/death-american-shopping-mall/4252/) on 15
February 2013.

140. Harris, Michael (2 January 2015). "Book review: 'The Internet Is Not the Answer' by Andrew
Keen" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/book-review-the-internet-is-not-the-answer-
by-andrew-keen/2015/01/02/8627999a-7973-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html) . The
Washington Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150120000258/https://www.wash
ingtonpost.com/opinions/book-review-the-internet-is-not-the-answer-by-andrew-keen/2015/0
1/02/8627999a-7973-11e4-9a27-6fdbc612bff8_story.html) from the original on 20 January
2015. Retrieved 25 January 2015.

141. MM Wanderley; D Birnbaum; J Malloch (2006). New Interfaces For Musical Expression (http://p
ortal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1142215.1142259) . IRCAM – Centre Pompidou. p. 180.
ISBN 978-2-84426-314-8.

142. Nancy T. Lombardo (June 2008). "Putting Wikis to Work in Libraries". Medical Reference
Services Quarterly. 27 (2): 129–145. doi:10.1080/02763860802114223 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F02763860802114223) . PMID 18844087 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1884408
7) . S2CID 11552140 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11552140) .
143. Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007). "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education" (http://heino
nline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jled57&div=8&id=&pag
e=) . Journal of Legal Education. 57 (1). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140703005
842/http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals%2Fjled
57&div=8&id=&page=) from the original on 3 July 2014.(subscription required)

144. "WikiStats by S23" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140825164715/http://s23.org/wikistats/lar

gest_html.php?sort=users_desc&th=8000&lines=500) . S23Wiki. 3 April 2008. Archived from
the original (http://s23.org/wikistats/largest_html.php?sort=users_desc&th=8000&lines=50
0) on 25 August 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2007.

145. "Alexa Web Search – Top 500" (http://www.alexa.com/topsites) . Alexa Internet. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20150302173920/http://www.alexa.com/topsites) from the
original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2015.

146. "The Arab Uprising's Cascading Effects" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110227051329/htt

p://www.miller-mccune.com/politics/the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575/) .
Miller-mccune.com. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original (http://www.miller-mccune.c
om/politics/the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575/) on 27 February 2011. Retrieved
27 February 2011.

147. "The Role of the Internet in Democratic Transition: Case Study of the Arab Spring" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20120705155248/http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2011/chokoshvili_davit.pdf)
(PDF). 5 July 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.etd.ceu.hu/2011/chokoshvili_davit.p
df) (PDF) on 5 July 2012., Davit Chokoshvili, Master's Thesis, June 2011

148. Kirkpatrick, David D. (9 February 2011). "Wired and Shrewd, Young Egyptians Guide Revolt" (htt
ps://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10youth.html) . The New York Times.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170129225903/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/1
0/world/middleeast/10youth.html) from the original on 29 January 2017.

149. Ronald Deibert; John Palfrey; Rafal Rohozinski; Jonathan Zittrain (2008). Access Denied: The
Practice and Policy of Global Internet Filtering (https://books.google.com/books?id=l6ry0NeJ1
N8C) . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-29072-2.

150. Larry Diamond; Marc F. Plattner (2012). Liberation Technology: Social Media and the Struggle
for Democracy (https://books.google.com/books?id=xhwFEF9HD2sC) . JHU Press. ISBN 978-
1-4214-0568-1.
151. Manoharan, Aroon P.; Melitski, James; Holzer, Marc (20 January 2022). "Digital Governance: An
Assessment of Performance and Best Practices" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC8769785) . Public Organization Review. 23 (1): 265–283. doi:10.1007/s11115-021-
00584-8 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11115-021-00584-8) . ISSN 1573-7098 (https://search.
worldcat.org/issn/1573-7098) . PMC 8769785 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC8769785) .

152. Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 180.

153. Roodman, David (2 October 2009). "Kiva Is Not Quite What It Seems" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20100210045011/http://blogs.cgdev.org/open_book/2009/10/kiva-is-not-quite-what-it-se
ems.php) . Center for Global Development. Archived from the original (http://blogs.cgdev.org/
open_book/2009/10/kiva-is-not-quite-what-it-seems.php) on 10 February 2010. Retrieved
16 January 2010.

154. Strom, Stephanie (9 November 2009). "Confusion on Where Money Lent via Kiva Goes" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2009/11/09/business/global/09kiva.html) . The New York Times. p. 6.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170129225155/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/0
9/business/global/09kiva.html) from the original on 29 January 2017.

155. Gralla, Preston (2007). How the Internet Works (https://archive.org/details/howinternetworks0

0gral) . Indianapolis: Que Pub. ISBN 978-0-7897-2132-7.

156. Andriole, Steve (14 January 2020). "Cyberwarfare Will Explode In 2020 (Because It's Cheap,
Easy And Effective)" (https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveandriole/2020/01/14/cyberwarfare-
will-explode-in-2020-because-its-cheap-easy--effective/) . Forbes. Retrieved 18 May 2021.

157. Kim, Jin-Young; Bu, Seok-Jun; Cho, Sung-Bae (1 September 2018). "Zero-day malware detection
using transferred generative adversarial networks based on deep autoencoders" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20220430072512/http://sclab.yonsei.ac.kr/publications/Papers/IJ/2018_IS_J
YK.pdf) (PDF). Information Sciences. 460–461: 83–102. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2018.04.092 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ins.2018.04.092) . ISSN 0020-0255 (https://search.worldcat.org/iss
n/0020-0255) . S2CID 51882216 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51882216) .
Archived from the original (http://sclab.yonsei.ac.kr/publications/Papers/IJ/2018_IS_JYK.pd
f) (PDF) on 30 April 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2021 – via Soft Computing Laboratory, Dept.
of Computer Science, Yonsei University.
158. Razak, Mohd Faizal Ab; Anuar, Nor Badrul; Salleh, Rosli; Firdaus, Ahmad (1 November 2016).
"The rise of "malware": Bibliometric analysis of malware study" (https://linkinghub.elsevier.co
m/retrieve/pii/S1084804516301904) . Journal of Network and Computer Applications. 75:
58–76. doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2016.08.022 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jnca.2016.08.022) .
Retrieved 30 April 2022.

159. Xiao, Fei; Sun, Yi; Du, Donggao; Li, Xuelei; Luo, Min (21 March 2020). "A Novel Malware
Classification Method Based on Crucial Behavior" (https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2020%2F68042
90) . Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2020: 1–12. doi:10.1155/2020/6804290 (http
s://doi.org/10.1155%2F2020%2F6804290) . ISSN 1024-123X (https://search.worldcat.org/iss
n/1024-123X) .

160. Morgan, Steve (13 November 2020). "Cybercrime To Cost The World $10.5 Trillion Annually By
2025" (https://cybersecurityventures.com/hackerpocalypse-cybercrime-report-2016/) .
Cybercrime magazine website. Cybersecurity ventures. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20220305072352/https://cybersecurityventures.com/hackerpocalypse-cybercrime-report-201
6/) from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.

161. Eder-Neuhauser, Peter; Zseby, Tanja; Fabini, Joachim (1 June 2019). "Malware propagation in
smart grid networks: metrics, simulation and comparison of three malware types" (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2Fs11416-018-0325-y) . Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques.
15 (2): 109–125. doi:10.1007/s11416-018-0325-y (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11416-018-032
5-y) . ISSN 2263-8733 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2263-8733) . S2CID 255164530 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255164530) .

162. Razak, Mohd Faizal Ab; Anuar, Nor Badrul; Salleh, Rosli; Firdaus, Ahmad (1 November 2016).
"The rise of "malware": Bibliometric analysis of malware study" (https://www.sciencedirect.co
m/science/article/pii/S1084804516301904) . Journal of Network and Computer
Applications. 75: 58–76. doi:10.1016/j.jnca.2016.08.022 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jnca.20
16.08.022) . ISSN 1084-8045 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1084-8045) .

163. Spring, Tom (12 June 2023). "Obfuscation tool 'BatCloak' can evade 80% of AV engines" (http
s://www.scmagazine.com/news/obfuscation-batcloak-80-percent-av-engines) . SC Media.
Retrieved 21 December 2023.

164. Nam, Nguyen (10 January 2023). "Kiểm tra ip" (http://kiemtraip.vn) . Retrieved 21 December
2023.

165. Amos, Zac. "How Ransomware Can Evade Antivirus Software" (https://gca.isa.org/blog/how-ra
nsomware-can-evade-antivirus-software) . gca.isa.org. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
166. Diffie, Whitfield; Susan Landau (August 2008). "Internet Eavesdropping: A Brave New World of
Wiretapping" (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=internet-eavesdropping) . Scientific
American. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081113212137/http://www.sciam.com/ar
ticle.cfm?id=internet-eavesdropping) from the original on 13 November 2008. Retrieved
13 March 2009.

167. "CALEA Archive" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081025074518/http://w2.eff.org/Privacy/Sur

veillance/CALEA/?f=archive.html) . Electronic Frontier Foundation (website). Archived from
the original (https://w2.eff.org/Privacy/Surveillance/CALEA/?f=archive.html) on 25 October
2008. Retrieved 14 March 2009.

168. "CALEA: The Perils of Wiretapping the Internet" (https://www.eff.org/issues/calea) .

Electronic Frontier Foundation (website). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090316041
313/http://www.eff.org/issues/calea) from the original on 16 March 2009. Retrieved
14 March 2009.

169. "CALEA: Frequently Asked Questions" (https://www.eff.org/pages/calea-faq) . Electronic

Frontier Foundation (website). 20 September 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200
90501072553/http://www.eff.org/pages/calea-faq) from the original on 1 May 2009.
Retrieved 14 March 2009.

170. "American Council on Education vs. FCC, Decision, United States Court of Appeals for the
District of Columbia Circuit" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120907032500/http://www.baller.
com/pdfs/ACE.pdf) (PDF). 9 June 2006. Archived from the original (http://www.baller.com/p
dfs/ACE.pdf) (PDF) on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2013.

171. Hill, Michael (11 October 2004). "Government funds chat room surveillance research" (https://
www.usatoday.com/tech/news/surveillance/2004-10-11-chatroom-surv_x.htm) . USA Today.
Associated Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100511220550/http://www.usato
day.com/tech/news/surveillance/2004-10-11-chatroom-surv_x.htm) from the original on 11
May 2010. Retrieved 19 March 2009.

172. McCullagh, Declan (30 January 2007). "FBI turns to broad new wiretap method" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20100407040227/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9595_22-151059.html) .
ZDNet News. Archived from the original (http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9595_22-151059.html)
on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2009.

173. "First round in Internet war goes to Iranian intelligence" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013122

1173608/http://www.debka.com/article/3509/) . Debkafile. 28 June 2009. Archived from the
original (http://www.debka.com/article/3509/) on 21 December 2013.
174. "Freedom on the Net 2018" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181101192951/https://freedomho
use.org/sites/default/files/FOTN_2018_Final%20Booklet_11_1_2018.pdf) (PDF). Freedom
House. November 2018. Archived from the original (https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/fil
es/FOTN_2018_Final%20Booklet_11_1_2018.pdf) (PDF) on 1 November 2018. Retrieved
1 November 2018.

175. OpenNet Initiative "Summarized global Internet filtering data spreadsheet" (http://opennet.net/r
esearch/data) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120110211146/http://opennet.net/r
esearch/data) 10 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 8 November 2011 and "Country
Profiles" (http://opennet.net/research/profiles) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110
826003215/http://opennet.net/research/profiles) 26 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine,
the OpenNet Initiative is a collaborative partnership of the Citizen Lab at the Munk School of
Global Affairs, University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard
University; and the SecDev Group, Ottawa

176. "Enemies of the Internet 2014: Entities at the heart of censorship and surveillance" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20140312120731/http://12mars.rsf.org/2014-en/#slide2) . Reporters
Without Borders. Paris. 11 March 2014. Archived from the original (http://12mars.rsf.org/2014-
en/#slide2) on 12 March 2014.

177. "Internet Enemies" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170703221044/https://12mars.rsf.org/wp-

content/uploads/EN_RAPPORT_INTERNET_BD.pdf) (PDF). Reporters Without Borders. Paris.
12 March 2012. Archived from the original (https://12mars.rsf.org/wp-content/uploads/EN_RA
PPORT_INTERNET_BD.pdf) (PDF) on 3 July 2017.

178. Deibert, Ronald J.; Palfrey, John G.; Rohozinski, Rafal; Zittrain, Jonathan (2010). Access
Controlled: The Shaping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20110604102753/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=12187) .
MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51435-4. Archived from the original (http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalo
g/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=12187) on 4 June 2011.

179. "Finland censors anti-censorship site" (https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/02/18/finnish_polic

y_censor_activist/) . The Register. 18 February 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0080220075300/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/02/18/finnish_policy_censor_activist/)
from the original on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
180. Albert, Réka; Jeong, Hawoong; Barabási, Albert-László (9 September 1999). "Diameter of the
World-Wide Web". Nature. 401 (6749): 130–131. arXiv:cond-mat/9907038 (https://arxiv.org/ab
s/cond-mat/9907038) . Bibcode:1999Natur.401..130A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
99Natur.401..130A) . doi:10.1038/43601 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F43601) .
S2CID 4419938 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4419938) .

181. "Georgian woman cuts off web access to whole of Armenia" (https://www.theguardian.com/w
orld/2011/apr/06/georgian-woman-cuts-web-access) . The Guardian. 6 April 2011. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130825075603/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/ap
r/06/georgian-woman-cuts-web-access) from the original on 25 August 2013. Retrieved
11 April 2012.

182. Cowie, James. "Egypt Leaves the Internet" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110128080518/htt

p://www.renesys.com/blog/2011/01/egypt-leaves-the-internet.shtml) . Renesys. Archived
from the original (http://www.renesys.com/blog/2011/01/egypt-leaves-the-internet.shtml) on
28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.

183. "Egypt severs internet connection amid growing unrest" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technol

ogy-12306041) . BBC News. 28 January 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201201
23164134/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-12306041) from the original on 23
January 2012.

184. Coroama, Vlad C.; Hilty, Lorenz M. (February 2014). "Assessing Internet energy intensity: A
review of methods and results" (http://publicationslist.org/data/lorenz.hilty/ref-218/2014_Coro
ama_Hilty_Assessing_Internet_Energy_Intensity_AAM.pdf) (PDF). Environmental Impact
Assessment Review. 45: 63–68. Bibcode:2014EIARv..45...63C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/2014EIARv..45...63C) . doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.12.004 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eiar.2
013.12.004) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200923042203/http://publicationslis
t.org/data/lorenz.hilty/ref-218/2014_Coroama_Hilty_Assessing_Internet_Energy_Intensity_AA
M.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2020.

185. Giles, Jim (26 October 2011). "Internet responsible for 2 per cent of global energy usage" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20141001113334/http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/onepercent/2
011/10/307-gw-the-maximum-energy-the.html) . New Scientist. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.newscientist.com/blogs/onepercent/2011/10/307-gw-the-maximum-energy-the.htm
l) on 1 October 2014.,
186. Raghavan, Barath; Ma, Justin (14 November 2011). "The energy and emergy of the internet" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20140810075940/http://conferences.sigcomm.org/hotnets/2011/p
apers/hotnetsX-final56.pdf) (PDF). Proceedings of the 10th ACM Workshop on Hot Topics in
Networks. Cambridge, MA.: ACM SIGCOMM. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1145/2070562.2070571 (https://d
oi.org/10.1145%2F2070562.2070571) . ISBN 978-1-4503-1059-8. S2CID 6125953 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6125953) . Archived from the original (http://conferences.sigc
omm.org/hotnets/2011/papers/hotnetsX-final56.pdf) (PDF) on 10 August 2014.

187. Cwienk, Jeannette (11 July 2019). "Is Netflix bad for the environment? How streaming video
contributes to climate change | DW | 11.07.2019" (https://www.dw.com/en/is-netflix-bad-for-th
e-environment-how-streaming-video-contributes-to-climate-change/a-49556716) . Deutsche
Welle. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190712203905/https://www.dw.com/en/is-ne
tflix-bad-for-the-environment-how-streaming-video-contributes-to-climate-change/a-4955671
6) from the original on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.

188. " "Climate crisis: The Unsustainable Use of Online Video": Our new report" (https://theshiftproje
ct.org/en/article/unsustainable-use-online-video/) . The Shift Project. 10 July 2019. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20190721144259/https://theshiftproject.org/en/article/unsustai
nable-use-online-video/) from the original on 21 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.

Sources

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Text taken from World Trends in
Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018​(http://unesdoc.unesc
o.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf) , 202, UNESCO.

Abbate, Janet (1999). Inventing the Internet (https://archive.org/details/inventinginterne00abb

a) . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01172-3.

Further reading

First Monday (http://www.firstmonday.org/) , a peer-reviewed journal on the Internet by the

University Library of the University of Illinois at Chicago, ISSN 1396-0466 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1396-0466)

The Internet Explained (https://sonet.digital/articles/internet-explained/) , Vincent Zegna & Mike

Pepper, Sonet Digital, November 2005, pp. 1–7.

Castells, Manuel (2010). The Rise of the Network Society. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-9686-4.
 Yeo, ShinJoung (2023), Behind the Search Box: Google and the Global Internet Industry, U of
Illinois Press, ISBN 978-0-252-04499-1, JSTOR 10.5406/jj.4116455 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/
10.5406/jj.4116455)

External links

The Internet Society (https://www.internetsociety.org/)

Living Internet (https://livinginternet.com/) , Internet history and related information, including

information from many creators of the Internet