SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

ET 382

Unit 1: Introduction to Signals and Systems

Lecture 2

Unit 1 1
 Content of Lecture 2

1. Basic Operations of Signal

2. Classifications of Signals
3. Summary

Unit 1 2
 Objectives/Outcomes
1. Explain the basic operations of signals
2. Discuss classes of signals

Unit 1 3
 Content of Lecture 2
1. Basic Operations of Signal
2. Classifications of Signals
3. Applications of Elementary Signals
4. Summary

Unit 1 4
 Signal
Operations : Time Shifting
• The time shifting of continuous time signals x(t) can be
represented mathematically by
y(t) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑇)
• It may result in time decay or time advance. If T is positive ( T > 0),
then the shift is to the right and it decays the signal. If T is negative
( T < 0 ) the shift is to the left and advances the signal.
• Similarly , time shifting in discrete-time signals x[n] can be represented
as

Y[n]=x[n-k]
Unit 1 5
 Signal
Operations : Time Shifting
• The signals are identical in shape, but that are displaced or
shifted relative to each other.
• The applications of such related signals arise in radar (radio
detection and ranging), sonar (sound navigation and ranging),
police radar or lidar (light detection and ranging) guns and
seismic signal processing, in which several receivers at different
locations observe a signal being transmitted through a medium
(water, rock, air, etc.).
• In this case, the difference in propagation time from the point
of origin of the transmitted signal to any two receivers results in
a time shift between the signals at the two receivers.

Unit 1 6
 Exercise 2
A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown below. Sketch and label
each of the following signals.
(a) x(t − 2); (b) x(2t);
(c) x(t / 2); (d) x(−t)
(e) x(t + 2); (f) 2x(t)

a) Time shifting
b) Shrinks
Solution: c) Expands
d) Reflection
e) Time shifting
f) Amplitude scaling
Unit 1 7
34
 Signal
Operations : Time Reversal
• The time reversal or folding of a signal x(t) or reflection can be
obtained by folding the signal about t=0. The output signal is
denoted by x(-t).
• Thus, if x(t) represents an audio tape recording, then x( -t) is the
same tape recording played backward.
• The figure (a) shows a triangular signal x(t) and its reflection (b)
(a) (b)
x(-t).

Unit 1 8
 Signal
Operations : Time Reversal
• Exercise 3
• The discrete signal is given by x[n]= [ 4,3,2,1,0], sketch the time
reversal x[-n]

Unit 1 9
 Signal
Operations : Time Scaling
• May be time expansion (upsampling or interpolation) or time
compression (decimation or down sampling) of the signals. The
shape of the signal x(t) is maintained.
• For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time scaled version of x(t)
• For |a| ˃ 1,period of function x(t) reduces and function speeds
up. Graph of the function shrinks.
• For |a |˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases and the function
slows down. Graph of the function expands.
• The time scaling can be expresses as

y(t)= 𝑥(𝑎𝑡) / 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 + 𝑡0)

• discrete-time signal expression : 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑎𝑛]

Unit 1 10
 Signal
Operations : Time Scaling
Imagine the above time scaling transformation using a cd recording
as an example, making illustrations for a=2 and a=0.5.
(ii) What do you think the audio will sound like in both cases ?
(iii) Give a physical explanation for these changes.
• To Change the time period of the signal, divide the time limits
of the signal by the factor ‘a’.
• The Figures shows three signals (a) x(t),(b) x(2t), and (c )x(t/2)
showing time scaling transformation.

(a) (b) (c)

Unit 1 11
 Signal Operations – Compression &
Stretching
𝑦 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋100𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = sin(0.5 ∗ 2𝜋100𝑡)
𝑦 𝑡 = sin(2 ∗ 2𝜋100𝑡)

Unit 1 12
 Signal
Operations : Time Scaling
Exercise 4
Given the signal x(t) in the figure below, clearly illustrate the
following signal operations:
(a) y(t)=x(t+1)
(b) y(t)=x(-t+1)
(c) y(t)=x(3 t)
2

(d) y(t)=x(3 t + 1)
2

Unit 1 13
 Signal
Operations : Amplitude Scaling
• This operation is performed on dependent variables.
• The amplitude scaling of a continuous time signal x(t) can be
expressed by the equation y(t)=Ax(t), where A is a constant or scalar
(scaling factor).
• The Amplitude of y(t) at any instant is equal to A multiplied by the
amplitude of x(t) at that instant but the shape of y(t) is the same as the
shape of x(t).

• Examples of physical devices that perform amplitude scaling are (1)

electronic amplifiers and (2) a resistor in a circuit when resistance (R) is
multiplied by current x(t) to obtain output voltage y(t).
Unit 1 14
 Signal
Operations : Amplitude Scaling

(a) (b)
• If A >1, it is amplification and if A<1, it is attenuation.

• The figures (a) shows an arbitrary signal x(t) and (b) shows y(t)=2x(t).
• Similarly, the amplitude scaling of a discrete signal can be represented
by y[n]=ax[n]. Where ‘a’ is a constant/Scalar.

• Plot the discrete signals x[n]= [ 2,1,2] and y[n]=2x[n]

Unit 1 15
 Signal Operations : Multiplication
and Subtraction
• These operations are done on dependent variables.
• Multiplication and addition of CT and DT signals can be obtained
by adding and multiplying the value at every instant time/sample
respectively.
• An example a of physical device that add signals is an audio mixer
which combines music and voice signals.
• In communication (AM radio signal), the signal 𝑥1 𝑡 which is an
audio signal plus a dc component is multiplied with another signal
𝑥2 𝑡 a pure sinusoidal carrier wave signal in a process called
modulation.
Unit 1 16
 Signal Operations : Multiplication
and Subtraction
Example

Given 𝑥1[n]= [1, 2, 3, 1, 5] and 𝑥2[n]= [2, 3, 4, 1, −2]. Find

(a) 𝑥1[n]+ 𝑥2[n] (b) 𝑥1[n] - 𝑥2[n] and (c) 𝑥1[n]*𝑥2[n]

Unit 1 17
 Signal Operations of Discrete Time
Functions: Shift

Given that the sequence for y[n] is such that

for n<-1, y[n]=0,
y[-1] = 1, y[0] = 2, y[1] = 1, and
for n>1 y[n] = 0
Find the sequence for y[n-3] and y[n+3]

Unit 1 18
 Signal Operations of Discrete Time
Functions: Shift

Y[n]

[𝑛𝑜 =0]

Y[n-3]

[𝑛𝑜 = −3]

Y[n+3]

[𝑛𝑜 =+3]

n → n + n0 , n0 an integer
Unit 1 19
 Exercise 4
A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown in the Figure
below. Write the sequence and sketch the following
signals.

Solution:
x[n] = ..., 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 0, 0,...

(a) x[n − 2] = ...,0, 0, 0, 0,1,2,3,3, 0, 0,...

(b) x[2n] = ...,0, 0, 2, 3, 0, 0,...

(c) x[−n] = ...,0, 3,3, 2,1, 0, 0,...

(d) x[−n + 2] = ...,0, 3,3, 2,1,0, 0,...

Unit 1 20
46
 Exercise 5
Using the discrete-time signals 𝑥1[𝑛] and 𝑥2[𝑛] shown in the Figure
below, represent each of the following signals by graph and
sequence of numbers.
(a) y1[n] = x1[n] +x2[n];
b) y2[n] = 2x1[n]; c) y3[n] = x1[n]x2[n]

(a) y1[n] is sketched in Fig. a, we obtain

y1[n] = ...,0, −2, −2, 3, 4, 3, −2, 0, 2, 2, 0,...

(b) y 2 [n] is sketched in Fig. b, we obtain
y1[n] = ...,0, 2, 4, 6, 0, 0, 4, 4, 0,...

(c) y1[n] is sketched in Fig. c, we obtain
y1[n] = ...,0, 2, 4, 0,...
Unit 1  21
47
 Exercise 6
The discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛] is defined by

 1, n = 1,2
x[n] = −1, n = −1,−2
 0, n = 0 and n >2


Find a) the time-shifted signal v[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 3] ;

b) y[𝑛] = 𝑥[2𝑛 + 3]

Unit 1 22
48
 Solution: Alternative Method
 1, n = 2 − 3,1− 3
a) v[n] = −1, n = −1− 3, −2 − 3

 0, n = 0 − 3, n  −2 − 3 and n  2 − 3
 1, n = −1,−2
= −1, n = −4,−5
 0, n = −3, n  −5 and n  −1

b) The signal x[n] is displayed in Fig. a. Time shifting x[n] to the left by 3 yields the intermediate
signal v[n] shown in Fig. b. Finally, scaling n in v[n] by 2, we obtain the solution y[n] in Fig. c.
Note that the compression performed in going from v[n] to y[n]= v[2n], the samples of v[n] at
n = −5 and n = −1 (i.e., those contained in the original signal at n = −2 and n = 2) are lost.

 1, n = 2 − 3,1− 3  1, n = −1,−2
v[n] = −1, n = −1− 3, −2 − 3 = −1, n = −4, −5
 
 0, n = 0 − 3, n  −2 − 3 and n  2 − 3  0, n = −3, n  −5 and n  −1

Unit 1 23
 Solution
n v[n] y[n] =v[2n]
n−5 v[n −5]=0 y[n −2] =0
n=−6 v[−6] =0 y[−6] =v[−12] =0
n=−5 v[−5] =−1 y[−5] =v[2* −5]=v[−10] =0
n=−4 v[−4] =−1 y[−4] =v[−8] =0
n=−3 v[−3] =0 y[−3] =v[−6] =0
n=−2 v[−2] =1 y[−2] =v[−4] =−1
n=−1 v[−1]=1 y[−1] =v[−2] =1
n=0 v[0] =0 y[0] =v[0] =0
n−1 v[n −1]= 0 y[n −1]=0
 1, n=−1
y[n]= −1, n=−2

 0, n−2and n−1
Unit 1 24
 Classifications of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals can
further be classified as
1. Deterministic and Random Signals
2. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
3. Energy and Power Signals
4. Causal and Non-Causal Signals
5. Even and Odd Signals

Unit 1 25
 Deterministic and Random
signals
• Deterministic signals exhibit certainty of their magnitude
and phase at any given instant. They have a regular pattern
hence can be represented by a mathematical equation.
• Examples of deterministic signals are sin waves, triangular
waves, square waves and exponential waves
• Random signals are those signals that take random values at
any given time and must be characterized statistically by
probabilistic terms as they cannot be described by a
mathematical equation. The amplitude and phase cannot be
predicted in advance. Thermal noise and EEG
(electroencephalogram) signal are examples of random
signals.
• Signals in this course will be assumed to be deterministic
• Random signals are outside the scope of ET 382
Unit 1 26
 Signal Properties: Periodic Signals
• A signal is periodic if it repeats itself after a
g(t) = g(t + T) for all t
fixed period T (or N), i.e.
• For a continuous time signal: x(t) = x(t+T),
where T > 0 for all t (i.e -∞ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ ∞) which
denotes time. g[n] = g[n+N] for all n

• For a discrete time signal: x(n) = x(n+N)

N

• The smallest value of integer N that satisfies

this condition is called the fundamental period

g[n]
of the discrete-time signal x[n].
• The fundamental angular frequency of x[n] is
defined by 2 measured in
= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

radians/cycle. N n

Unit 1 27
 Signal Properties: Periodic Signals
What is the fundamental frequency of the discrete-time square wave
Below?

Solution:
2 2 
= = = rads (N = 8 from the graph)
N 8 4
Unit 1 28
 Signal Properties: Periodic
Signals
Examples
Examine whether the following signals are periodic or not?
If periodic, determine the fundamental period.

1. x(t)=sin12 𝜋𝑡

2. x(t)=sin 𝜋𝑡 u(t)

3. x(t)=sin10 𝜋𝑡 + cos20𝜋𝑡

Unit 1 29
 Signal Properties: Periodic
Signals
Solutions

1. x(t)=sin12 𝜋𝑡
2𝜋 2𝜋 1
𝑤= , 𝑇= = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
𝑇 12𝜋 6

Since T is a ratio of two integers, x(t) is periodic.

2. x(t)=sin 𝜋𝑡 u(t)
2𝜋
sin 𝜋𝑡 is periodic with the period 𝑇 = = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠. u(t) is present from 0 to
𝜋
infinity. For a signal to be periodic, it must meet the condition −∞ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ ∞.
Therefore, the product of a periodic signal and aperiodic signal is aperiodic.

Unit 1 30
 Signal Properties: Periodic
Signals
Solutions

3. x(t)=sin10 𝜋𝑡 + cos20𝜋𝑡
• The signal x(t) is made up of two signals i.e. 𝑥1 𝑡 = sin10 𝜋𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 =
cos20 𝜋𝑡.
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
• The period for 𝑥1 𝑡 is 𝑇1 = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 and for 𝑥2 𝑡 is 𝑇2 = =
10𝜋 5 20𝜋
1
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
10

𝑇1
• To find the fundamental period T of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , we find the ratio of = 2
𝑇2
sec. 𝑇1 =2 𝑇2

• The ratio of the two periods is an integer hence x(t) is periodic

Unit 1 31
 Signal Properties: Aperiodic
Signals
• Non-periodic signals (also known as aperiodic) do not have
repeating cycles
• For non-periodic signals
x(t) ≠ x(t+Tₒ)
• A non-periodic signal is assumed to have a period T = ∞
• Several common non-periodic signals include; the exponential
signal, sinc function.

Unit 1 32
 Energy and Power Signal
• As discussed earlier, signals may represent a broad variety of
phenomena. In most applications, the signals considered are
directly related to physical quantities capturing power and energy
in a physical system.
• In Electrical systems, a signal may represent voltage v(t) or
current i(t).
• Consider a simple circuit diagram where a voltage v(t) is
developed across a resistor R, producing a current i(t).
• The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor R can be
defined by
𝑉 2 (𝑡)
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 2 (𝑡) or 𝑃 =
𝑅

Unit 1 33
 Energy and Power Signal
• In signal analysis, power is normally defined in terms of 1- ohm
resistor. So that whether the signal x(t) represents current or voltage,
the instantaneous power p(t) can be expressed as
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
• A signal is said to be an energy signal if and only if its total
energy E is finite (i.e. 0 < 𝐸 < ∞)
• For an energy signal, the average power 𝑃 = 0.
• Signals that are both deterministic and non periodic are viewed as
energy signals.
• A signal is said to be a power signal if and only if the average
power P is finite (i.e. 0 < P < ∞)
• Periodic signals and random signals are viewed as power signals.
Power signals have infinite energy.
Unit 1 34
 Energy and Power Signal
F o r a C o n t i n o u s - t i m e s i g n a l x (t ) :
 x(t) or x[n] is an energy signal
E = −  x2 (t)dt : energy
T
if 0 E 
1
P = lim T → 
T  2
−T
| x2 ( t ) | d t : p o w e r or is a power signal
T
2
if 0 P 
1
P =
T  2
−T
| x2 ( t ) | d t : i f x ( t ) p o w e r Asignal x(t) or x[n] can not be an
2
is periodic w i t h p erio d T
energy and power signal simultaneously

For a discrete time signal x[n]:


E= n=− \x 2 [n]|: energy

1
P = σ𝑁 −1
𝑛=0 | 𝑥
2
𝑛 | if x[n] power is periodic with periodN
𝑁

Unit 1 35
 Exercise 7
What is the total energy of
these signals →

Solution: Total energy of the continuous-time signal x(t)

T /2 
E= lim −T / 2 x 2(t)dt = − x 2 (t)dt
T→
For a discrete-time signal: replace the integrals by sum

E=  x 2 [n]
n = −
 −T1 / 2 T1 / 2 
a) E =  − x 2 (t)dt =  − 0dt + −T1 / 2 A 2 dt + T1 / 2 0dt = A 2 .T1

b) E =  x 2 [n]
n=−
E = x 2 [−] + ... + x 2 [−4] + x 2 [−3] + x 2 [−2] + x 2 [−1] + x 2 [0] + x 2 [1] +
x 2 [2] + x 2 [3] + x 2 [4]... + x 2 []
E = 0 + ... + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 +...0 = 3J
Unit 1 36
 Energy and Power Signal
Exercise
1. Prove that the average power for the signals calculated in a) and
b) is zero?
2. Determine the average power in the square wave signal shown
in the figure below.

Unit 1 37
 Energy and Power Signal
Exercise
1. Categorise each of the following signals as either energy or
power signals and calculate the energy or time average power
of the signal.
a) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), for a>1, a<1, a=0
b) 𝑥 𝑡 = 5 cos(𝜋𝑡) + sin(5𝜋𝑡), −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
𝑛, 0 ≤ 𝑛 < 5
c) 𝑥 𝑛 = ቐ10 − 𝑛, 5 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 10
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Unit 1 38
 Causal and Non-Causal Signals
• A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be causal if x(t)=0 for 𝑡
< 0. X(t) only exits for𝑡 ≥ 0.
• A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be anti causal if x(t)=0
for t > 0. All periodic signals are non causal. They exist for
− ∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞.
• A causal signal does not exist for negative times and anti causal
signal does not exist for positive times.
• u(t) is a causal signal while u(-t) is anti causal signal.

Unit 1 39
 Causal and Non-Causal Signals
Example
For each given signal, determine whether it is causal or non causal.
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 (Causal)
2. 𝑥 𝑡 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2𝑡 (Non- Causal)
3. 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑢 𝑛 + 4 − u(n − 2) (Non- Causal)

Unit 1 40
 Signal Properties: Even and Odd
Signal
• A signal is even if x(-t) = x(t). i.e. it is identical to its time
reversed signal, i.e. it can be reflected in the origin and is equal to
the original); Example is cos(t) signal. Sysmmetrical about the y-
axis.
• A signal is odd if x(-t) = -x(t). i.e. is identical to its negated, time
reversed signal, i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal.
Example is sin(t) signal

x (t ) = x (−t ) x (t ) = −x (−t )

Unit 1 41
 Signal Properties: Even and Odd
Signal

Even signal Odd signal

x[n] = x[−n] x[−n] = −x[n]

Unit 1 42
 Summary
• A signal is a pattern of variation or function of one or more
independent variables that carries some information or quantitative
description to represent a physical phenomenon, event or process
• A system is combination of elements that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function and produces some output
• Examples of elementary signals include;
1. Dirac delta function (Impulse or Unit Response)
2. Unit Step function
3. Unit ramp function
4. Signum function
5. Rectangular Pulse or Gate Function
6. The Unit Triangle Function
7. Sinc function
Unit 1 43
 Applications of Elementary
Signals
• Ramp signals are also used to test breakdown voltage on transformer
oil, insulators, bushings etc.
• Step, parabolic and ramp signals, normally cut out and transformed to
sawtooth, are used in testing and verification of electronic boards or
PCBs, power electronic and power system components
• Square and ramp(sawtooth) waveforms are normally the basic building
blocks for electronic music production
• Parabolic signal is used to test how a system responds to acceleration
e.g. vehicle speed at different gears to test limitation
• Lightning impulse test is undertaken on electrical machines
• The transformer mechanical integrity diagnosis analysis includes a test
called sweep frequency response uses high frequency signals

Unit 1 44
 Summary
• Some operations that can be performed on signals include;
time reflection, time shifting, time scaling (Compression,
Stretching), amplitude scaling, addition and subtraction.
• Signals can be classified under the following:
➢ Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
➢Deterministic and Random Signals
➢Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
➢Energy and Power Signals
➢Causal and Non- Causal Signals
➢Even and Odd Signals

Unit 1 45
 END OF UNIT 1

Unit 1 46