Fundamentals of Theoretical and Experimental Aerodynamics

Professor Arnab Roy

Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture 03
Flow velocity, pressure, skin friction

Welcome to this lecture 3 where we discuss about flow velocity, pressure, skin friction,
temperature, density and other properties of air and other gases.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:45)

Concepts which would be covered broadly in this lecture include random molecular motion,
which we have learned in kinetic theory of gases. Directed or bulk motion of a fluid. Static,
dynamic and stagnation pressure. Control volume and moving fluid element. Continuum and
free molecular flow. Density of a gas. Temperature and kinetic energy of a gas. Velocity
vector, steady flow and streamline as well as fluid friction and velocity gradient. We would
aim to have an introductory exposure to these topics in this lecture.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:34)

The key points cover pressure density, temperature, flow velocity and skin friction.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:42)

Now, we are discussing about problems which include both external and internal
aerodynamics applications. External aerodynamics typically deals with airflow around a body
of interest like flow past a wing, aircraft, rocket, a building, cricket ball and many other
objects where airflow past an object is of interest.

Internal aerodynamics on the other hand, deals with airflow through a body, not over a body,
like flow through a pipe, nozzle, diffuser, duct, gas turbine engine and many others. Concepts
which we are going to discuss in this lecture and many others for that matter related to flow
velocity, pressure, density, temperature, skin friction etcetera and many other aerodynamic
quantities of interest are broadly applicable in an identical manner most often to both external
and internal flows. And therefore, external and internal aerodynamics.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:58)

We would begin the discussion by looking at pressure. Let us consider a surface immersed in
a fluid. It is drawn somewhere in the middle of a fluid region and its location is fixed. If you
want to really visualize it, you might say that it looks like a surface like this and you have
fluid flow in the surrounding and fluid could even move into this small volume that we have
defined for ourselves, which we will call as control volume and the surface that encloses that
control volume is nothing but the control surface.

We have considered this surface as immersed in a region of fluid and it could be anywhere in
the middle of the fluid region. Importantly, its location is fixed. That means, if we imagine
that there is a frame of reference which is inertial, then, this control volume is fixed with that
inertial reference frame.

Now, at an instant of time it encloses a small volume of the fluid which may or may not be in
a state of ordered motion or bulk motion, which we mean as flow. We can call this as a
control volume which we already mentioned. Now, the molecules of the fluid confined within
this control volume are in a state of constant random molecular motion which we have
learned from kinetic theory of gases or fluids in general.

And these random molecular motions occur irrespective of whether the fluid has a bulk
motion or an ordered motion. Now, what do we mean by that? If we zoom very deep into this
control volume almost to the molecular scales, we would be able to see molecules moving
around randomly in different directions and often colliding with each other.

But that does not mean that the flow overall has a velocity. So, if the flow over all exists with
a bulk motion, then we are talking about a macroscopic velocity. So, these velocities are
microscopic whereas, if the entire flow has a certain directional motion, which is in a
macroscopic sense, then we talk about the flow velocity. So, we say that these molecular
motions exist whether there is a macroscopic velocity or not. Irrespective of that it exists.

Now, pressure when we interpret it, one aspect of pressure which we call as static pressure is
dependent on these random molecular motions. So, the random molecular motions create
impact on the surface which defines the edge of the control volume and creates a pressure,
that pressure is called as the static pressure.

Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on this control volume surface due to the
time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules when they impact this control surface
or when they are crossing this control surface as they go beyond the control volume. So, this
is only one type of pressure that we come across in aerodynamics.

Now, if you have a macroscopic or bulk motion which means you have a macroscopic
velocity, then there is a pressure produced by that macroscopic motion or the ordered motion
or the bulk motion which is called as dynamic pressure. It is easy to remember it because it
has the word dynamic which means you have the motion aspect in a bulk sense or in a
macroscopic sense.

Now, the sum of the static and the dynamic pressure would give you another pressure which
we call as the stagnation pressure or total pressure. So, that is sum total of the static pressure
and the dynamic pressure. That gives you stagnation pressure or total pressure. Both static
and stagnation pressure can be measured by experimental means, we look at the experimental
means later in the course.
(Refer Slide Time: 8:38)

Now, we were talking about defining a control volume and its control surface in the middle
of the fluid where there are no solid surfaces, but that does not mean that we cannot define
pressure on a solid surface. When you immerse a solid surface into a fluid region for
example, you are introducing an airfoil, a wing or a cylinder or a building, any body of
interest, then the solid surface gets wetted by the air which is flowing past it.

This is of course applicable when we are talking about an external aerodynamics problem. A
solid surface can come into the picture even in an internal aerodynamics problem. Now, when
it gets wetted by the air, the solid surface feels the pressure exactly in the same way as the
control volume surface was feeling due to impact of molecular collisions of air molecules
with the solid surface. So, the mechanism remains identical.

Now, pressure at a point on the solid surface can vary. As we move from one point of the
surface, so, let us say if this is the surface and this is the velocity field which is existing
across the surface, we might find that as we look at different locations on that surface, the
pressure would be different at different points.

One reason for the variation as you move along the body surface is the change in its
geometry. If the surface geometry is changing as you move along the surface, then that is one
of the reasons why pressure distribution can change on the body surface. In general, it is a
function of the location.

Pressure is more appropriately defined at a point in the fluid. As you shrink the control
volume and make it smaller and smaller, the pressure gets defined at a point. When you want
to define the pressure not in an average sense over control volume, which has a large volume,
but rather specifically at a point in the fluid, for that you have to do a limiting operation.

If you can shrink the control volume in such a manner, then the surface area of the control
volume becomes really small. So, in the limit, the ratio dF/dA will actually give you the
pressure where dF is the force on the differential elemental area and the elemental area itself
is dA. You are practically defining it at a point because the control volume has shrunk to such
a small extent, that you are almost located at a point rather than over a finite volume.

So, the pressure now gets defined at the point P1 using this equation. So, P1 is a general point
and therefore, it gets defined at each and every point in the flow field using this approach.
Now, from the above equation, it is clear that the pressure p is the limiting form of the force
per unit area, where the area of interest has shrunk to nearly 0 at the point P1. Pressure is thus
a point property and can have a different value from one point to another in the fluid or from
one point on a solid surface to another depending on the kind of application. Interestingly, it
is a scalar. Its SI units is Newton per meter square, which is also called as Pascal. This is a
very brief introduction to what we mean by pressure when we look at an aerodynamic study.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:52)

Now, we are talking about shrinking the control volume to a point. A point virtually has no
dimension. Let me say we are essentially talking about extremely small dimensions if at all.
Now, if we really shrink it to such dimensions, there is an issue related to the continuum of
the fluid, because the fluid is comprised of a large number of molecules, we need to look at
the mean free path of these molecules.

So, if you have shrunk the dimension to such an extent that it becomes comparable with the
mean free path of the molecules, then the medium appears to be discontinuous. When we
look at the control volume, we might see discrete movement of molecules in it. And
therefore, there may be discrete jumps in the pressure when we try to define it at a point.

We have to keep in mind that when we define that point P1, it at least has such dimensions
that the fluid appears to be a continuous medium and the molecular collisions are not felt in a
discrete manner on the control surface. If that happens, if we are satisfying that condition,
then we have a so-called continuum flow where the medium appears to be continuous.

Now, when this mean free path is of the same order of dimension as the point itself, then, we
have the so called free molecular flow. Here we have talked about introducing a small
cylinder of diameter d into the flow and looking at whether the pressure felt by that cylinder
is very abrupt, very discontinuous or it behaves in a continuous manner.

It would depend on whether the diameter is comparable to the mean free path of the particles
or it is way larger than it. If it is much larger, then the flow appears to be a continuum. If it is
comparable then it has a so-called mean free molecular flow. Now, collisions with the body
surface occur infrequently and therefore, the body surface can feel each molecular impact
distinctly in a free molecular flow.

Now, in aerodynamics we know that there are re-entry capsules which enter the atmosphere,
when they complete a space mission and are coming back to the earth. At that time, they are
entering the atmosphere and they encounter free molecular flow because at the outer reaches
of the atmosphere, the medium is extremely rarefied that means the density is very low.

If that happens, then we have a free molecular flow situation. The air density is very low at
those altitudes. We refer the standard atmosphere calculations to figure out what they could
be like say if you perform the calculations which we discussed in the earlier lecture at an
altitude of 100 kilometres or so, you will find out how low the density is and then what
happens is the mean free path becomes of the order of the capsule dimension.

Now, the good thing is most of the practical aerodynamic applications involve continuum
flows. So, we do not vary regularly look at rarefied flows, but if we do, then we have to
accept this reality and go ahead with the analysis by taking this issue into account.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:57)

So, that was a brief on different aspects of pressure. Now, let us look at density of the
medium. This is another very relevant aerodynamic variable and it is defined as mass per unit
volume. If you imagine the same control volume that we were looking at earlier, then there
will be a certain amount of mass within that control volume.

If you are talking about a differential sized control volume, then the limit dV tends to 0 dm
by dv would give you the density. Again now, shrinking the control volume to a point
following the approach similar to what we did it for pressure. Like pressure, density is also a
point property and it can vary from point to point in the fluid and density can change due to
changes in pressure or temperature or both. Density depends on how much mass you have in
the control volume and the volume of fluid that is contained in it. Its SI unit is given by kg
per meter cube.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:24)

Let us look at temperature. It is a very important property of the fluid when we are looking at
high-speed flows. The temperature of a gas as we know is directly proportional to the mean
kinetic energy of the molecules of the gas. Therefore, as the flow velocity increases, the
temperature also increases. If we consider KE as the mean molecular kinetic energy of a gas,
then the temperature is given by this relation KE equal to 3 by 2k times T where k is the
Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature of the gas in Kelvin.

KE=3/2kT

Therefore, we can visualize a high temperature gas as one in which the molecules and atoms
are randomly moving at very high speeds, because of the large content of kinetic energy at
higher temperature. On the other hand, a low temperature gas correspondingly has much less
kinetic energy content and therefore, much less energetic molecular movement. Temperature
is also a point property and can vary from point to point in the gas. Its SI unit is Kelvin.
Temperature can also be measured by experimental means.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:00)

Now, coming to a very very important aspect of aerodynamics, which we call as flow
velocity or bulk velocity. In aerodynamics we talk about motion of air and other gases.
Therefore, flow velocity is a very important aspect. Now, comparing motion of a rigid body
and a fluid, we have two points which are important for us to see.

The second point talks about a rigid solid body in translational motion. We see that all parts
of the solid essentially translate at the same velocity when it is perfectly rigid. However, if
the solid object is flexible, then there could be significant deformation of the solid as it
undergoes the motion. And in that case, what happens is that there is significant deformation
of the solid during the motion and therefore, different portions of the solid may translate with
different velocities, but that never happens when it is rigid.

In a fluid, we never have a rigid medium. When a fluid is in motion, one portion of the fluid
may be traveling at a different velocity from another, it is a very routine matter. In an external
flow past a body, the fluid undergoes acceleration which varies from point to point,
depending on the shape of the body over which it is taking place. In an internal flow on the
other hand, which happens through a passage, the flow velocity changes as the passage cross
sectional area changes along its length.

Therefore, if a flow is occurring, for example, through a duct like this, the cross-sectional
area which is available at different locations of the duct are different. When you look at the
flow velocity, you would find that as it crosses different cross sections, it is going to change.
The acceleration occurs under the influence of different forces which arise out of pressure
gradient, viscous stresses etcetera. We are going to learn more about these as we move on.
When air flows over an airfoil, let us follow a specific infinitesimal small element of mass
called a fluid element, and we would watch this element move with time. Here is a small
fluid element and it is following a certain path, its reaching a certain point, that point is a
point of observation. We will watch the fluid element very closely as it passes that point.

And we have these lines which are called a streamlines. We will learn more about them as
time goes on and they are formed around the airfoil as the flow moves past this body. By
definition, streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the flow
velocity vector at that point. So, if you look at different points, since this is a planar flow, this
flow can have two components of velocity x and y, which you can call as u and v
respectively.

Now, if you sum them up vectorially, you have the velocity vector and that velocity vector
aligns with the streamline at any given point. So, that is what we mean by the streamline is a
curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the flow velocity vector.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:59)

Now, both the speed and direction of this fluid element can vary as it moves from point to
point in the fluid region. Now, we are going to fix our eyes on a specific point in the fluid
region, the point P, which we showed in the previous diagram, and we have fixed this point P
like we fix the control volume earlier. We shall assume that this point P lies on the path that
would be followed by the fluid element that we are tracking.

The velocity of the fluid at point P can be defined as the velocity of the infinitesimally small
fluid element as it sweeps through point P. Now, the flow velocity is a vector as we said, this
is the vector representation of the velocity with the u and v components aligned along x and y
direction and therefore, we have the i and j unit vectors.

This is in contrast to pressure, density and temperature which we already looked at which are
scalar variables. Therefore, velocity has both magnitude and direction. Now, the moving fluid
element traces out a fixed path in space, if the flow is not changing or fluctuating with time,
the flow is steady; not changing or fluctuating with time gives you a steady flow.

In steady flow, the fluid elements trace out a fixed path in space. If you introduce a new fluid
element at the same point from where we were tracking the old fluid element, the new fluid
element will also trace the same path as that of the old one and eventually sweep through
point P with the same velocity which includes both the magnitude and direction when
crossing P.

That means, the flow pattern repeats over and over again. It remains fixed with time. For
steady flow, the path travelled by the fluid element is called a streamline of the flow. Velocity
is a point property; it can vary from point to point in the flow. Its SI units is meter per second.
And it can be measured by experimental means.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:29)

We come to the next topic, fluid friction and skin friction. Fluid friction is a force which
would restrict the movement of fluid either within itself, that means, within the fluid region
itself or of another body moving through the fluid, which for all practical purposes, could be
a solid body.
Now, when there is a fluid flow around the body, the frictional force which is felt by the body
is called skin friction. The frictional force acts on the body surface. That means, if this is the
body surface and you have the moving fluid, the friction will act exactly at the interface
between the fluid and the solid. And therefore, we have the term ‘skin’ which is used to
indicate that it is a surface force.

Now, we consider two adjacent streamlines p and q in the flow field. We do not have any
solid surfaces here; we are right in the middle of the fluid. The streamlines are an
infinitesimal distance dy apart, which is this distance. At point one on streamline P the flow
velocity is v. So, this is the point 1, this is the velocity vector representing the velocity at that
point 1; and at point 2 on streamline Q, the flow velocity is slightly higher, v plus dv. So, that
is shown here.

And you notice that the velocity vectors are tangential to the streamlines at the respective
points. Now, you can imagine that the fluid layers between the streamlines p and q are
rubbing against each other due to the velocity difference and the faster one, the quicker one.
is tending to drag the slower one.

And due to this friction, there forms a force of magnitude dF subscript friction on streamline
p acting tangentially towards the right. So, the quicker streamline is trying to pull the slower
one ahead through friction. Furthermore, we imagine that this force is acting on an elemental
area dA, where dA is perpendicular to the y axis and tangent to the streamline p at point 1.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:06)

Now, based on this framework, we can define what is called as the local shear stress. We will
indicate it with tau and we define it at a point 1 where the frictional force is felt in the
tangential direction. So, we again do a limiting operation and we say that is essentially acting
on a very small elemental area dA and then once we take the ratio between the differential
frictional force and the differential area, what we get out of it is a stress tau.

So, for aerodynamic problems, there is a further simplification. We find that the value of the
shear stress at a point on a stream line is proportional to the spatial rate of change of velocity
normal to the streamline at that point. That means we can relate it with the change in velocity
which occurred between these two streamlines. That is a beautiful connection with the flow
field.

So, we can go directly into the flow field invoke information about the velocity change and
put it into the shear stress expression to obtain it. So, what we have finally over here
essentially is a ratio of the velocity change by the distance over which the change had
occurred. And there is a proportionality constant mu, which is essentially the viscosity
coefficient which is dependent on the fluid medium, the kind of fluid that we are handling.

So, dV/dy is the velocity gradient, mu is the viscosity coefficient. Incidentally, mu is a

function of temperature. In regions of a flow field where velocity gradients are small, tau
would be small because it is dependent on the velocity gradient. And the influence of fiction
locally in the flow will be small. If the velocity gradient vanishes, so would friction.

On the other hand, in regions where velocity gradients are large, frictional forces will be
large. Again, if viscosity coefficient is large depending on the medium that we are using, it
would increase the friction. SI units for shear stress comes out to be Newton per meter square
and skin friction is Newton and they are measurable.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:31)

This would be the most appropriate reference for this lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:37)

We would like to conclude by saying that concepts of pressure, density, temperature, flow
velocity and fluid friction as well as skin friction was discussed in the lecture. Additionally,
the assumptions of continuum flow and free molecular flow were discussed. These are vital
aspects which form the basis for analysing aerodynamic flows. Thank you.