BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
(23HES0201)

ANNAMACHARYA
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES
(AUTONOMOUS)
KADAPA
BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(Common to All branches of Engineering)
PART A: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT I DC & AC Circuits
DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C) – Ohm’s Law and its
limitations – Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) – Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL) – Simple Numerical Problems to determine Equivalent Resistance
in series, parallel, series-parallel circuits – DC Voltage Source – DC
Current Source.

AC Circuits: Equations of AC Voltage and AC Current –Waveform –

Cycle – Time Period – Frequency – Amplitude – Phase – Phase Difference
– Maximum Value, Average Value, RMS Value, Form Factor, Peak Factor
of Sine Waveform – Simple Numerical Problems – Definitions of
Impedance, Active Power, Reactive Power, Apparent Power and Power
Factor – Voltage and Current relationship along with phasor diagrams in
Pure Resistance, Pure Inductance and Pure Capacitance Circuits.

UNIT II Machines and Measuring Instruments

Machines: Construction, Principle and Operation of (i) DC Motor (ii) DC
Generator (iii) Single Phase Transformer (iv) Three Phase Induction Motor
(v) Alternator – Applications of Electrical Machines.
Measuring Instruments: Construction and Working Principle of Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) and Moving Iron (MI) Instruments – Wheat
Stone Bridge.

UNIT III Energy Resources, Electricity Bill & Safety Measures

Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources;
Layout and operation of various Power Generation systems: Hydel,
Nuclear, Solar & Wind power generation.
 Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air
conditioners, PCs, Laptops, Printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for
consumption of electrical energy, two- part electricity tariff, calculation of
electricity bill for domestic consumers.

Equipment Safety Measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature

circuit breaker (MCB), merits and demerits. Personal safety measures:
Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to avoid shock.
Textbooks:
1. Basic Electrical Engineering, D. C. Kulshreshtha, Tata McGraw Hill,
2019, First Edition
2. Power System Engineering, P.V. Gupta, M.L. Soni, U.S. Bhatnagar
and A. Chakrabarti,Dhanpat Rai & Co, 2013
3. Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Rajendra Prasad, PHI
publishers, 2014, Third Edition

PART B: BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT I SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Introduction - Evolution of electronics – Vacuum tubes to nano

electronics - Characteristics of PN Junction Diode — Zener effect — Zener
Diode and its Characteristics
Diode Applications: Diode as clipper Diode as clamper, Bipolar Junction
Transistor input and output characteristics of CB, CE, & CC
Configurations.

UNIT II BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND

INSTRUMENTATION

Rectifiers and power supplies: Block diagram description of a dc power

supply, working of a full wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter (no analysis),
working of simple zener voltage regulator. Amplifiers: Block diagram of
Public Address system, Circuit diagram and working of common emitter
(RC coupled) amplifier with its frequency response. Concept of Voltage
divider biasing. Operational Amplifier: Block diagram of Op-Amp.
 Inverting and non inverting. Pin configuration of IC 741.

UNIT III DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Overview of Number Systems, Logic gates including Universal Gates,

BCD codes, Excess-3 code, Gray code, Hamming code. Boolean Algebra,
Basic Theorems and properties of Boolean Algebra, Truth Tables and
Functionality of Logic Gates – NOT, OR, AND, NOR, NAND, XOR and
XNOR. Simple combinational circuits–Half Adder and Full Adder,
Introduction to sequential circuits, Flip flops, Registers and counters
(Elementary Treatment only)
Textbooks:
1. R. L. Boylestad & Louis Nashlesky, Electronic Devices & Circuit
Theory, Pearson Education, 2021.
2. R. P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw
Hill, 2009
 UNIT – 1 CHAPTER – 1 DC Circuits
DC Voltage Source
DC Current Source
Ohm’s Law
Resistor & Resistance
Inductor & Inductance
Capacitor & Capacitance
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Network Reduction

DC Voltage Source:
 DC Voltage Source is a Voltage Source which has constant magnitude at any instant
of time.

Characteristics Representation

 DC Voltage Source is of two types.

(i) Ideal DC Voltage Source (ii) Practical DC Voltage Source
(i) Ideal DC Voltage Source:
Ideal DC Voltage Source is a DC Voltage Source which has no internal resistance
and it supplies the voltage which is equal to the actual voltage value.

Characteristics V = VS
 (ii) Practical DC Voltage Source:
Practical DC Voltage Source is a DC Voltage Source which has some internal
resistance and it supplies the voltage which is less than the actual voltage value.

Characteristics V = VS – VR

DC Current Source:
 DC Current Source is a Current Source which has constant magnitude at any instant
of time.

Characteristics Representation

 DC Current Source is of two types.

(i) Ideal DC Current Source (ii) Practical DC Current Source
(i) Ideal DC Current Source:
Ideal DC Current Source is a DC Current Source which has no internal resistance
and it supplies the current which is equal to the actual current value.

Characteristics I = IS

(ii) Practical DC Current Source:

Practical DC Current Source is a DC Current Source which has some internal
resistance and it supplies the current which is less than the actual current value.

Characteristics I = I S – IR
Ohm’s Law:
 Ohm’s Law states that the Current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the Potential Difference or Voltage between the two ends of the
conductor, when the Temperature, Pressure and other Physical Parameters of the
conductor remains constant or unchanged.

I ∝V
==> I=G ∗ V
1
==> I=
R
∗ V
==> V = IR

Here, V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance
G = Conductance

 Georg Simon Ohm, a Physicist and Mathematician from Germany proposed the
Ohm’s Law in the year 1827.

ρL
 For any conductor, R=
A
Here, R = Resistance of the Conductor
ρ = Resistivity or Specific Resistance of the Conductor
L = Length of the Conductor
A = Area of Cross-Section of the Conductor

 Parameters which are assumed to be constant while defining Ohm’s Law are
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Physical Parameters
 Length of the Conductor
 Area of Cross-Section of the Conductor

 Limitations of Ohm’s Law are

 It is not applicable when the Temperature is changed.
 It is not applicable when the Pressure is changed.
 It is not applicable when the Physical Parameters are changed (Length of the
Conductor and Area of Cross-Section of the Conductor).
Resistor and Resistance:

 Resistor is an electrical device which controls the flow of current and allows the
required amount of current in an electrical circuit.

 In electrical circuits, the Resistor will be represented as

 Resistance is the property of Resistor.

 Resistance is denoted by R.

 The unit of Resistance is Ohm (Ω).

 Ohm was named as the unit of Resistance in the honour of Georg Simon Ohm, a
Physicist and Mathematician from Germany.

 Resistance can be measured with Ohmmeter.

 According to Ohm’s Law, the Current passing through a conductor is directly

proportional to the Potential Difference or Voltage between the two ends of the
conductor, when the Temperature, Pressure and other Physical Parameters of the
conductor remains constant or unchanged.

I ∝V

==> I=G ∗ V

1
==> I=
R
∗ V

==> V = IR

Here, V = Voltage

I = Current

R = Resistance

G = Conductance
 ρL
 For any conductor, R=
A

Here, R = Resistance of the Conductor

ρ = Resistivity or Specific Resistance of the Conductor
L = Length of the Conductor
A = Area of Cross-Section of the Conductor

 The Power absorbed by the Resistor will be dissipated in the form of Heat.

 In Electrical Circuits, Wire Wound Resistors are used. Wire Wound Resistor consists
of a Metal Wire (made up of Nickel and Chromium Alloy) wound on Tube (made up
of Ceramic or Fiber Glass).

 In Electronic Circuits, Carbon Resistors are used. Carbon Resistor consists of a

Carbon Film placed around a Ceramic Rod.

Problem: Determine the specific resistance of a metal wire of 2m length and 0.6mm
diameter, if the resistance of the wire is 50Ω.

Solution:
Given Data,
Length = L = 2 m
Diameter = d = 0.6 mm = (0.6 ∗ 10–3 ) m
Resistance = R = 50 Ω

d (0.6 ∗ 10–3)
Radius r= 2 = = (0.3 ∗ 10–3 ) m
2

Area of Cross-Section A = πr2 = 3.14 ∗ (0.3 ∗ 10–3 ) 2 = (0.28 ∗ 10–6 ) m2

ρL
Resistance R=
A
ρ∗2
==> 50 =
(0.28 ∗ 10–6)

==> ρ = (7 ∗ 106 )

 Specific Resistance ρ = (7 ∗ 106 ) Ω - m

Inductor and Inductance:
 Inductor is an electrical device which stores Electrical Energy in the form of Magnetic
Field, when the current passes through it in an electrical circuit.

 In electrical circuits, the Inductor will be represented as

 Inductance is the property of Inductor.

 Inductance is denoted by L.

 The unit of Inductance is Henry (H).

 Henry was named as the unit of Inductance in the honour of Joseph Henry, a Scientist
from America.

 Inductance can be measured with LCR Meter.

 Inductor is also called as Coil, Choke.

 Inductor consists of a Conducting Material (Copper Wire) wound on a Magnetic

Material (Iron or Silicon-Steel).

 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, the Voltage across an

Inductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of Current passing through the
Inductor.
dI dI 1
V ∝ dt ==> V = L dt ==> I = L ∫ V dt
dI
 Voltage across Inductor is V=L
dt
1
 Current flowing through Inductor is I = L ∫ V dt

dI dI
 Power P = VI ==> P = L dt I ==> P = LI dt

Energy E
 Power = Time ==> P= t

dE
==> P = dt

dE
==> ∫ P = ∫ dt

dI dE
==> ∫ LI dt = ∫ dt

==> ∫ LI dI = ∫ dE

==> ∫ dE = ∫ LI dI

==> ∫ dE = L ∫ I dI
 I2
==> E=L 2

2
LI
==> E= 2

1
==> E = 2 LI 2

1
 Energy stored in Inductor E= LI 2
2

Problem: Find the energy stored in an inductor which has 10mH inductance when a current
of 2A is passing through it.

Solution:
Given Data,
Inductance = L = 10 mH = (10 ∗ 10−3 ) H
Current = I = 2 A

Energy stored in Inductor is

1 1
E = 2 LI 2 = 2 ∗ (10 ∗ 10−3 ) ∗ (2)2 = 0.02 Joules

 E = 0.02 J

Problem: If 150 coulombs of charge is supplied to an inductor of 8H in 10 seconds, then

find (i) Current passing through inductor (ii) Energy stored in inductor.

Solution:
Given Data,
Charge = Q = 150 C
Inductance = L = 8 H
Time = t = 10 seconds

Current passing through inductor is

Q 150
I = t = 10 = 15 Amperes

 I = 15A

Energy stored in Inductor is

1 1
E = 2 LI 2 = 2 ∗ (8) ∗ (15)2 = 900 Joules

 E = 900 J
Capacitor and Capacitance:
 Capacitor is an electrical device which stores Electrical Energy in the form of Electric
Field, when the current passes through it in an electrical circuit.

 In electrical circuits, the Capacitor will be represented as

 Capacitance is the property of Capacitor.

 Capacitance is denoted by C.

 The unit of Capacitance is Farad (F).

 Farad was named as the unit of Capacitance in the honour of Michael Faraday, a
Scientist from England.

 Capacitance can be measured with LCR Meter.

 Capacitor is also called as Condenser.

 Capacitor consists of two parallel plates or electrical conductors (made up of

Aluminium or Brass or Copper etc.) separated by insulating material or dielectric
material (Air or Glass or Plastic or Paper etc.).

 According to Faraday’s Law and Coulomb’s Law, the Charge in a Capacitor is

directly proportional to the Voltage across the Capacitor.
Q
Q∝V ==> Q = CV ==> C= V

Current passing through Capacitor is

Q dQ d
I= t ==> I = dt ==> I = dt (Q)
d d dV
==> I = dt (CV) ==> I = C dt (V) ==> I = C dt
dV
 Current passing through Capacitor is I = C dt
1
 Voltage across Capacitor is V = C ∫ I dt

dV dV
 Power P = VI ==> P = V C dt ==> P = CV dt

Energy E
 Power = Time ==> P= t

dE
==> P = dt

dE
==> ∫ P = ∫ dt

dV dE
==> ∫ CV dt = ∫ dt
 ==> ∫ CV dV = ∫ dE

==> ∫ dE = ∫ CV dV

==> ∫ dE = C ∫ V dV
2
V
==> E=C 2
2
CV
==> E=
2
1
==> E = 2 CV 2

1
 Energy stored in Capacitor E = 2 CV 2

Problem: Find the energy stored in a capacitor which has 10µF capacitance when a voltage
of 20V is applied across it.
Solution:
Given Data,
Capacitance = C = 10 µF = (10 ∗ 10−6 ) F
Voltage = V = 20 V

Energy stored in Capacitor is

1 1
E = 2 CV 2 = 2 ∗ (10 ∗ 10−6 ) ∗ (20)2 = (2 ∗ 10−3 ) = 2 Milli Joules

 E = 2 mJ

Problem: A charge of 400C is supplied to a capacitor of 60F by applying the energy. Find
Voltage across capacitor and Energy stored in capacitor.
Solution:
Given Data,
Charge = Q = 400 C
Capacitance = C = 60 F

Voltage across Capacitor is

Q 400
V = C = 60 = 6.67 Volts

 V = 6.67 Volts

Energy stored in Capacitor is

1 1
E = 2 CV 2 = 2 ∗ (60) ∗ (6.67)2 = 1335 Joules

 E = 1335 Joules
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL):

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed circuit is
zero. ΣV=0

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the sum of voltage gains is equal to the sum of
voltage drops in a closed circuit. V = V1 + V2 + V3

In the above circuit, Voltage Gain is V and Voltage Drops are V 1, V2, V3.

 In a resistor, V = IR
V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3

 According to KVL, the sum of voltage gains is equal to the sum of voltage drops
V = V1 + V2 + V3
==> IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
==> R = R1 + R2 + R3
Here, R is the equivalent resistance (Req).

 Example:
R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60 Ω
.
 The applications of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) are
 KVL is used in DC Circuits and AC Circuits.
 KVL is used for calculation of Voltage and Current in any circuit.
 KVL is used Mesh Analysis.
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL):
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the algebraic sum of currents at a junction or node is
zero. ΣI=0

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the sum of currents entering is equal to the sum of
currents leaving at a junction or node. I = I1 + I2 + I3

In the above circuit, entering current is I and leaving currents are I 1, I2, I3.

V V V V
 In a resistor, I = R  I1 = I2 = I3 =
R1 R2 R3

 According to KCL, the sum of currents entering is equal to the sum of currents leaving.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
V V V V
==> = + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
==> = + +
R R1 R2 R3
Here, R is the equivalent resistance (Req).

 Example: R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + ==> = + + = 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.033 = 0.183
R R1 R2 R3 R 10 20 30
1
==> R= = 5.46  R = 5.46 Ω
0.183

 The applications of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) are

 KCL is used in DC Circuits and AC Circuits.
 KCL is used for calculation of Voltage and Current in any circuit.
 KCL is used Nodal Analysis.
 Network Reduction

Problem: Draw the circuit diagrams and determine the equivalent resistance when three
resistors 10Ω, 20Ω and 30Ω are connected in (i) Series with each other (ii) Parallel with each
other

Solution:
(i) Series Connection

R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
Equivalent Resistance = R = ?

R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60 Ω

(ii) Parallel connection

R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 30 Ω
Equivalent Resistance = R = ?

1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
==> = + + = 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.033 = 0.183
R 10 20 30
1
==> = 0.183
R
1
==> R= = 5.46
0.183
 R = 5.46 Ω
Problem: Find the equivalent Resistance between the terminals A and B

Solution:

Resistors 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω are in parallel

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + = 1.08
R R1 R2 R3 2 3 4
R = 0.93Ω

Resistors 5Ω, 8Ω are in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 0.325
R R1 R2 5 8
R = 3.08Ω

Resistors 6Ω, 0.93Ω, 3.08Ω are in series

R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6 + 0.93 + 3.08 = 10.01
 R = 10.01 Ω
Problem: Find the equivalent Resistance between the terminals A and B

Solution:

Resistors 60Ω, 40Ω are in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 0.042
R R1 R2 60 40
R = 23.81Ω

Resistors 80Ω, 20Ω are in series

R = R1 + R2 = 80 + 20 = 100Ω

Resistors 23.81Ω, 30Ω are in series

R = R1 + R2 = 23.81 + 30 = 53.81Ω

Resistors 100Ω, 53.81Ω are in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 0.029
R R1 R2 100 53.81
 R = 34.48Ω
Problem: Find the equivalent Resistance between the terminals A and B

Solution:

Resistors 45Ω, 75Ω, 60Ω are in series

R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 45 + 75 + 60 = 180Ω

Resistors 50Ω, 180Ω are in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 0.026
R R1 R2 50 180
R = 38.46Ω
 Resistors 30Ω, 38.46Ω, 40Ω are in series
R = R1+R2+R3 = 30 + 38.46 + 40 = 108.46Ω

Resistors 25Ω, 108.46Ω are in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 0.049
R R1 R2 25 108.46
R = 20.41Ω

Resistors 15Ω, 20.41Ω, 20Ω are in series

R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 15+20.41+20 = 55.41

 R = 55.41Ω
 UNIT – 1 CHAPTER – 2 AC Circuits
AC Voltage Source, AC Current Source
Types of AC Waveforms
Cycle, Time Period and Frequency
Maximum Value, Average Value and RMS Value
Peak Factor and Form Factor
Amplitude, Phase and Phase Difference
Power Factor, Active Power, Reactive Power and Apparent Power
Impedance, Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance
Behaviour of Pure Resistance to AC Supply
Behaviour of Pure Inductance to AC Supply
Behaviour of Pire Capacitance to AC Supply

AC Voltage Source:
 AC Voltage Source is a Voltage Source whose magnitude and direction changes with
respect to time.

Waveform Representation
The equation for AC Voltage Source is V = Vm Sin (wt) or V = Vm Sinθ

AC Current Source:
 AC Current Source is a Current Source whose magnitude and direction changes with
respect to time.

Waveform Representation
The equation for AC Current Source is I = Im Sin (wt) or I = Im Sinθ
Types of AC Waveforms:

Sine Waveform

Square Waveform Triangle Waveform

Trapezoid Waveform

Advantages of Sine Waveform:

 It is easy to generate Sine Waveform by using AC Generator.

 It is easy to analyse Sine Function by using Fourier Analysis.

 The Differentiation of Sine Function is also a Sine Function.

d
(Sinθ) = Cosineθ
dθ

 The Integral of Sine Function is also a Sine Function.

∫(Sinθ dθ) = − Cosineθ
Cycle:
 The Complete Set of Positive Instantaneous Values and Negative Instantaneous
Values of a Sine Wave is called as Cycle.

 A Cycle consists of two Half Cycles i.e. Positive Half Cycle and Negative Half Cycle.
 In Positive Half Cycle, the Instantaneous Values are Positive.
 In Negative Half Cycle, the Instantaneous Values are Negative.

Time Period:
 The Time taken by a Sine Wave to complete one Cycle is called as Time Period.

 Time Period is denoted by T.

 The unit of Time Period is Seconds.
1
 Time Period = Frequency

1
 T= f where f = Frequency (in Hertz or Hz)

 For Example, Frequency f = 50Hz

1 1
 Time Period T = f = 50 = 0.02 Seconds
Frequency:
 The Number of Cycles that a Sine Wave completes in One Second is called as
Frequency.

 Frequency is denoted by f.
 The unit of Frequency is Hertz (Hz).
1
 Frequency = Time Period
1
 f=T where T = Time Period (in Seconds)

 For Example, Time Period T = 0.05 Seconds

1 1
 Frequency f = T = 0.05 = 20 Hz

Problem: Determine Frequency of a Sine Wave when the Time Period is 20 milli Seconds.

Solution:
Given Data,
Time Period T = 20 milli Seconds = 0.02 Seconds
1 1
 Frequency f = T = 0.02 = 50 Hz

Problem: Determine Time Period of a Sine Wave when the Frequency is 60 Hz.

Solution:
Given Data,
Frequency f = 60Hz
1 1
 Time Period T = f = 60 = 0.0167 Seconds
Maximum Value:
 The maximum Instantaneous Value during Positive Half Cycle (or) during Negative
Half Cycle of a Sine Wave is called as Maximum Value.

 For Voltage Wave, Maximum Value is +Vm in Positive Half Cycle and –Vm in
Negative Half Cycle.

 For Current Wave, Maximum Value is +Im in Positive Half Cycle and –Im in
Negative Half Cycle.

 Maximum Value is also called as Peak Value (Vp and Ip).

Instantaneous Value:
 The Value of a Sine Wave at a particular Instant of Time is called as Instantaneous
Value.
 The Instantaneous Values are Positive in Positive Half Cycle and Negative in
Negative Half Cycle.

 V1 is the Instantaneous Value at the instant t1 and V2 is the Instantaneous Value at the
instant t2.
 For Voltage Wave, the equation for Instantaneous Value is
V = Vm Sin (wt) where Vm = Maximum Value
w = 2πf
f = Frequency
 For Current Wave, the equation for Instantaneous Value is I = Im Sin (wt)
Average Value:

 The Average or Mean of different Instantaneous Values of a Sine Wave is called as

Average Value.

 Average Value is also called as Mean Value.

 For Voltage Wave, the Average Value is Vavg

2 Vm
Vavg =
π

 For Current Wave, the Average Value is Iavg

2 Im
Iavg =
π

 The Average Value of One Complete Cycle of Sine Wave is ZERO.

 In Sine Wave, the Positive Half Cycle Instantaneous Values are exactly same as
the Negative Half Cycle Instantaneous Values.

 If Average Value of Positive Half Cycle Instantaneous Values is (VX)

then, Average Value of Negative Half Cycle Instantaneous Values will be (–VX).

Vx + (−Vx) (Vx − Vx)

 Average Value of One Complete Cycle = = = 0
2 2

 Only One Half Cycle has to be considered to determine the Average Value of Sine
Waveform.
 Derivation:

Consider a Voltage Wave V = Vm Sin (wt)

1 Upper Limit
Vavg =
Time Period
∫Lower Limit (Waveform Equation)

1 π
Vavg = ∫
π 0
Vm Sin (wt) d(wt)

Vm π
Vavg =
π
∫0 Sin (wt) d(wt)

−Vm
Vavg = [ Cos (wt)π
0 ]
π

−Vm
Vavg = [ (Cos π − Cos 0) ]
π

−Vm
Vavg = [ (−1 − 1) ]
π

−Vm
Vavg = [ ( −2) ]
π

Vm
Vavg = [2]
π

2 Vm
 Vavg =
π

Similarly, for a Current Wave

I = Im Sin (wt)

2 Im
Iavg =
π
RMS Value:

 The Square Root of Mean of Square of different Instantaneous Values of an AC Wave

is called as RMS Value.

 RMS Value is also called as Root Mean Square Value.

 For Voltage Wave, the RMS Value is Vrms

Vm
Vrms =
√2

 For Current Wave, the RMS Value is Irms

Im
Irms =
√2

 Derivation:
Consider a Voltage Wave V = Vm Sin (wt)

1 Upper Limit
Vrms = √ (Waveform Equation)2
Time Period ∫Lower Limit

1 2π
Vrms = √ ∫ (Vm Sin wt)2 d(wt)
2π 0

1 2π
Vrms = √ ∫ (Vm2 Sin2 wt) d(wt)
2π 0
 Vm2 2π
Vrms = √ ∫0 (Sin2 wt) d(wt)
2π

Vm2
Vrms = √
2π
2π
∫0 ( 1 − Cos2 2wt) d(wt)

Vm2 2π
Vrms = √ ∫0 (1 − Cos 2wt) d(wt)
4π

Vm2
Vrms = √
4π
[ ∫02π 1 d(wt) − ∫0
2π
Cos 2wt d(wt) ]

Vm2 2π
Vrms = √
4π
[ (wt)2π
0 − (Sin22wt)0 ]

Vm2 Sin 2 ∗ 2π Sin 2 ∗ 0

Vrms = √
4π
[(2π − 0) − (
2
−
2
)]

Vm2 Sin 4π Sin 0

Vrms = √
4π
[(2π − 0) − (
2
−
2
)]

Vm2
Vrms = √
4π
[(2π − 0) − (0 − 0) ]

Vm2
Vrms = √
4π
[ 2π ]

Vm2
Vrms = √
2

Vm
 Vrms =
√2

Im
Similarly, for a Current Wave I = Im Sin (wt) Irms =
√2
Peak Factor:

 The Ratio of Maximum Value to RMS Value of a Sine Wave is called as Peak Factor.

Vm
 For Voltage Wave, Peak Factor =
Vrms

Im
 For Current Wave, Peak Factor =
Irms

Vm Vm
 For Sine Wave, Peak Factor = = = √2 = 1.414
Vrms Vm/√2

Form Factor:

 The Ratio of RMS Value to Average Value of a Sine Wave is called as Form Factor.

Vrms
 For Voltage Wave, Form Factor =
Vavg

Irms
 For Current Wave, Form Factor =
Iavg

Vrms Vm/√2 π
 For Sine Wave, Form Factor = = = = 1.11
Vavg 2Vm/π 2√2
Problem: A Sine Wave has the Maximum Voltage value of 325V. Determine (i) Average
Value (ii) RMS Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor.

Solution:
Given Data, Maximum Value = Vm = 325 Volts
2 Vm 2 ∗325
(i) Average Value = Vavg = = = 207 Volts
π π
Vm 325
(ii0 RMS Value = Vrms = = = 230 Volts
√2 √2

Vm 325
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Vrms 230

Vrms 230
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Vavg 207

Problem: For an AC Voltage of V = 300 Sin (314t) Volts, determine (i) Average Value
(ii) RMS Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor (v) Frequency (vi) Time Period.

Solution:
Given Data, V = 300 Sin (314t) Volts

This is in the form of V = Vm Sin (wt)

 Maximum Value = Vm = 300 Volts and w = 314

2 Vm 2 ∗ 300
(i) Average Value = Vavg = = = 191 Volts
π π
Vm 300
(ii) RMS Value = Vrms = = = 212.13 Volts
√2 √2

Vm 300
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Vrms 212.13

Vrms 212.13
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Vavg 191

w 314
(v) w = 2πf = 314 ==> f= = = 50 Hz
2π 2π
 Frequency = f = 50 Hz

1 1
(vi) Time Period = T = f = 50 = 0.02 Seconds
Problem: The Average Value of an AC Voltage is 200V. Determine (i) Maximum Value
(ii) RMS Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor.

Solution:
Given Data, Average Value = Vavg = 200 Volts

2 Vm
(i) Average Value = Vavg =
π
2 Vm 200 ∗ π
==> 200 = ==> Vm = = 314 Volts
π 2

 Maximum Value = Vm = 314 Volts

Vm 314
(ii) RMS Value = Vrms = = = 222 Volts
√2 √2

Vm 314
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Vrms 222

Vrms 222
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Vavg 200

Problem: The RMS Value of an AC Voltage is 250V. Determine (i) Maximum Value
(ii) Average Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor.

Solution:
Given Data, RMS Value = Vrms = 250 Volts

Vm
(i) RMS Value = Vrms =
√2
Vm
==> 250 = ==> Vm = 250 ∗ √2 = 353.55 Volts
√2

 Maximum Value = Vm = 353.55 Volts

2 Vm 2 ∗ 353.55
(ii) Average Value = Vavg = = = 225.08 Volts
π π

Vm 353.55
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Vrms 250

Vrms 250
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Vavg 225.08
Problem: A Sine Wave has the Maximum Current value of 50A. Determine (i) Average
Value (ii) RMS Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor.
Solution: Given Data, Maximum Value = Im = 50 Amperes

2 Im 2 ∗50
(i) Average Value = Iavg = = = 31.83 Amperes
π π

Im 50
(ii) RMS Value = Irms = = = 35.36 Amperes
√2 √2

Im 50
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Irms 35.36

Irms 35.36
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Iavg 31.83

Problem: For an AC Current of I = 60 Sin (250t) Amperes, determine (i) Average Value
(ii) RMS Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor (v) Frequency (vi) Time Period.
Solution:

Given Data, I = 60 Sin (250t) Amperes

This is in the form of I = Im Sin (wt)

 Maximum Value = Im = 60 Amperes and w = 250

2 Im 2 ∗ 60
(i) Average Value = Iavg = = = 38.2 Amperes
π π

Im 60
(ii) RMS Value = Irms = = = 42.43 Amperes
√2 √2

Im 60
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Irms 42.43

Irms 42.43
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Iavg 38.2

w 250
(v) w = 2πf = 250 ==> f = = = 40 Hz  Frequency = f = 40 Hz
2π 2π

1 1
(vi) Time Period = T = f = 40 = 0.025 Seconds
Problem: The Average Value of an AC Current is 30A. Determine (i) Maximum Value
(ii) RMS Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor.

Solution: Given Data, Average Value = Iavg = 30 Amperes

2 Im 2 Im 30 ∗ π
(i) Average Value = Iavg = ==> 30 = ==> Im = = 47.12
π π 2

 Maximum Value = Im = 47.12 Amperes

Im 47.12
(ii) RMS Value = Irms = = = 33.32 Amperes
√2 √2

Im 47.12
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Irms 33.32

Irms 33.32
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Iavg 50

Problem: The RMS Value of an AC Current is 25A. Determine (i) Maximum Value
(ii) Average Value (iii) Peak Factor (iv) Form Factor.
Solution: Given Data, RMS Value = Irms = 25 Amperes

Im Im
(i) RMS Value = Irms = ==> 25 = ==> Im = 25 ∗ √2 = 35.36
√2 √2

 Maximum Value = Im = 35.36 Amperes

2 Im 2 ∗ 35.36
(ii) Average Value = Iavg = = = 22.51 Amperes
π π

Im 35.36
(iii) Peak Factor = = = 1.414
Irms 25

Irms 25
(iv) Form Factor = = = 1.11
Iavg 22.51
Amplitude:
 The magnitude or value of Voltage Vector or Current Vector is called as Amplitude.

Phase:
 If there is no angle between Voltage Vector and Current Vector, then they are said to
be In-Phase with each other.

 If there is an angle (θ) between Voltage Vector and Current Vector, then they are said
to be Out-of-Phase with each other.

Here, I is lagging with V by an angle (θ) and V is leading with I by an angle (θ)

Phase Difference (or) Phase Angle:

 The angle between Voltage Vector and Current Vector in an AC Circuit is called as
Phase Angle.

Power Factor:
 The Cosine of the Phase Angle between Voltage Vector and Current Vector in an AC
Circuit is called as Power Factor.

 Power Factor = Cos θ

Active Power:

 The Useful Power which is consumed by an Electrical Load in an AC Circuit is called

as Active Power.

 Active Power is denoted by P.

 The unit of Active Power is Watts.

 Active Power is also called as Useful Power, True Power, Real Power etc.

 The Product of RMS Value of Voltage, RMS Value of Current and Power Factor is
called as Active Power.

P = Vrms ∗ Irms ∗ Cosθ (or) P = V I Cosθ

where θ is the Phase Angle between Voltage and Current.

Reactive Power:

 The Unused Power which is not consumed by an Electrical Load in an AC Circuit is

called as Reactive Power.

 Reactive Power is denoted by Q.

 The unit of Reactive Power is Volt Ampere Reactive (VAR).

 The Product of RMS Value of Voltage, RMS Value of Current and Sinθ is called as
Reactive Power.

Q = Vrms ∗ Irms ∗ Sinθ (or) Q = V I Sinθ

where θ is the Phase Angle between Voltage and Current.

Apparent Power:

 The Product of RMS Value of Voltage and RMS Value of Current is called as
Apparent Power.

 Apparent Power is denoted by S.

 The unit of Apparent Power is Volt Ampere (VA).

 S = Vrms ∗ Irms (or) S=VI

Impedance:

 Impedance is the property of opposing or controlling the flow of current in an AC

Circuit due to Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor.

 Impedance is denoted by Z.

 The unit of Impedance is Ohm (Ω).

 Impedance = Resistance + Reactance

Z = (R) + (X)

 Impedance = Resistance + Inductive Reactance + Capacitive Reactance

Z = (R) + (J XL) + (– J XC)
Z = R + J XL – J XC

Here XL = 2 π f L where f = Frequency (in Hz) L = Inductance (in Henries)

1
XC = where f = Frequency (in Hz) C = Capacitance (in Farads)
2πfC
Behaviour of Resistor (Pure Resistance Circuit) to AC Supply:

Circuit Diagram

Waveforms

Phasor Diagram

 Current and Voltage will be In-Phase with each other.

 Phase Angle = θ = 0
 Power Factor = Cos θ = Cos (0) = 1
 Impedance = Z = R Ω
V
 Current I=Z
Behaviour of Inductor (Pure Inductance Circuit) to AC Supply:

Circuit Diagram

Waveforms

Phasor Diagram

 Current and Voltage will be Out-of-Phase with each other.

 Current will be Lagging with Voltage by an angle of 900
 Phase Angle = θ = 900
 Power Factor = Cos θ = Cos (90) = 0
 Impedance = Z = (J XL) Ω where XL = Inductive Reactance (in Ω)
XL = 2 π f L where f = Frequency (in Hz)
L = Inductance (in Henries)
V
 Current I=Z
Behaviour of Capacitor (Pure Capacitance Circuit) to AC Supply:
Circuit Diagram

Waveforms

Phasor Diagram

 Current and Voltage will be Out-of-Phase with each other.

 Current will be Leading with Voltage by an angle of 900
 Phase Angle = θ = 900
 Power Factor = Cos θ = Cos (90) = 0
 Impedance = Z = (– J XC) Ω where XC = Capacitive Reactance (in Ω)
1
XC = where f = Frequency (in Hz)
2πfC
C = Capacitance (in Farads)
V
 Current I=Z
 UNIT – 2 Chapter – 1 Electrical Machines
Transformer
Induction Motor (AC Motor)
Alternator (AC Generator)
DC Motor
DC Generator

Transformer
Main Function of Transformer
Transformer is a Static Electrical Machine which transforms or transfers Electrical Power and
Electrical Energy from one circuit to another circuit without any change in Frequency.

Applications of Transformer
Core Type Transformers are used in Generating Stations, Sub-Stations and Residential Areas
Shell Type Transformers are used in Battery Chargers (Cell Phone, Laptop), Power Supplies
(UPS, Inverter) and Electronic Circuits (TV, Radio)

Construction of Transformer
Transformer is a Static Electrical Machine which transforms or transfers Electrical Power and
Electrical Energy from one circuit to another circuit without any change in Frequency.
The Main Parts of Transformer are (i) Core (ii) Coil or Winding

(i) Core:
 The purpose of Core is to hold the Coil or Winding.
 Another purpose of Core is to produce the magnetic field.
 Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Core is laminated with thin sheets of L shape or E shape.
 There are two types of Cores. They are Core Type and Shell Type.
 The Transformer which has “Core Type” Core is called as Core Type Transformer.
The Transformer which has “Shell Type” Core is called as Shell Type Transformer.
 Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer

(ii) Coil or Winding:

 The purpose of Winding is to Transfer Electrical Power and Electrical Energy from
One Circuit to Another Circuit.
 Winding will be placed on the Core.

 Winding Consists of Primary Winding and Secondary Winding.

 Winding is made up of Copper.

 The Winding which takes Electrical Power and Electrical Energy is called as Primary
Winding. The Winding which gives Electrical Power and Electrical Energy is called
as Secondary Winding.

 HV Winding will have more number of Turns and LV Winding will have less number
of Turns.
Step Down Transformer Step Up Transformer
 Comparison between Core Type Transformer and Shell Type Transformer

Sl.
Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer
No.
1

2 The Transformer which has “Core The Transformer which has “Shell Type”
Type” Core is called as Core Type Core is called as Shell Type Transformer.
Transformer.

3 It has two Limbs. (Left Side Limb and It has three Limbs. (Left Side Limb, Centre
Right Side Limb). Limb and Right Side Limb).

4 Primary Winding will be placed on Left Both Primary Winding and Secondary
Side Limb and Secondary Winding will Winding will be placed on Centre Limb.
be placed on Right Side Limb.

5 The Winding can be easily removed for The Winding cannot be easily removed for
maintenance purpose. maintenance purpose

6 The Winding can be easily cooled. The Winding cannot be easily cooled

7 The Thin Sheets of Lamination will be The Thin Sheets of Lamination will be in E
in L Shape. Shape.

8 Core Type Transformers are used in Shell Type Transformers are used in Battery
Generating Stations, Sub-Stations and Chargers (Cell Phone, Laptop), Power
Residential Areas. Supplies (UPS, Inverter) and Electronic
Circuits (TV, Radio)
 Working Principle of Transformer
Transformer is a Static Electrical Machine which transforms or transfers Electrical Power and
Electrical Energy from one circuit to another circuit without any change in Frequency.

Here, V = Voltage
I = Current
E = EMF
N = Number of Turns
Ø = Magnetic Flux

Step1: V1 ==> I1 ==> Production of Magnetic Field due to MMF ==> E1

When a Voltage (V1) is applied across Primary Winding, then,
 Current (I1) passes through Primary Winding.
 Magneto Motive Force (MMF) produces Magnetic Field around the Primary Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Ø).
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, an EMF (E1) will be
induced in Primary Winding due to alternating Magnetic Flux around the Winding.

Step2: Production of Magnetic Field due to Mutual Induction ==> E2 ==> I2 ==> V2
 According to Mutual Induction, as the Secondary Winding is placed near the magnetic
field of Primary Winding on a same Core, a Magnetic Field will be produced around
the Secondary Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Ø).
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, an EMF (E2) will be
induced in Secondary Winding due to alternating Magnetic Flux around the Winding.
 Current (I2) passes through Secondary Winding.
 Voltage (V2) will be produced across the Secondary Winding.
 Induction Motor (AC Motor)
Main Function of Induction Motor
Induction Motor is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Electrical Energy
(AC Supply) into Mechanical Energy.

Applications of Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motors are used in Water Pumps, Grinding Machines, Printing
Machines, Fans etc.
Slip Ring Induction Motors are used in Electric Trains, Lifts, Cranes, Stone Crushers etc.

Construction of Induction Motor

Induction Motor is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Electrical Energy
(AC Supply) into Mechanical Energy.

The Main Parts of Induction Motor are (i) Stator (ii) Rotor
(i) Stator:

Stator Core Stator Winding

 Stator is a stationary part of the Induction Motor.

 Stator consists of Core and Coil (Winding).
 Stator Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Stator Core is laminated.
 Stator Core consists of Slots.
 Stator Winding will be placed in the Slots.
 Stator Winding is made up of Copper (Conducting Material).
 Stator Winding will take 3Φ AC Supply.

(ii) Rotor:

Rotor Core Squirrel Cage Rotor Slip Ring Rotor

 Rotor is a rotating part of the Induction Motor.

 Rotor consists of Core and Coil (Winding).
 Rotor Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Rotor Core is laminated.
 Rotor Core consists of Slots.
 Rotor Winding will be placed in the Slots.
 Rotor Winding is made up of Copper (Conducting Material)
 There are two types of Rotors. (1) Squirrel Cage Rotor (2) Slip Ring Rotor.
 The Induction Motor which has “Squirrel Cage Rotor” is called as “Squirrel Cage
Induction Motor”.
 The Induction Motor which has “Slip Ring Rotor” is called as “Slip Ring Induction
Motor”.
 Comparison between Squirrel Cage Rotor and Slip Ring Rotor
Comparison between Squirrel Cage Induction Motor and Slip Ring Induction Motor

Sl. Squirrel Cage Rotor / Slip Ring Rotor /

No. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

2 In Squirrel Cage Rotor, the ends of In Slip Ring Rotor, one end of Rotor
Rotor Winding will be short circuited. Winding will be short circuited and other
end will be connected to Slip Rings,
Brushes and External Resistance.

3 The Induction Motor which has The Induction Motor which has Slip Ring
Squirrel Cage Rotor is called as Rotor is called as Slip Ring Induction
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor. Motor.

4 Squirrel Cage Induction Motors are Slip Ring Induction Motors are used in
used in Water Pumps, Grinding Electric Trains, Lifts, Cranes, Stone
Machines, Printing Machines, Fans etc. Crushers etc.
Slip Rings, Brushes and External Slip Rings, Brushes and External
5
Resistance are not required. Resistance are required.

6 Construction is simple and Cost is less Construction is not simple and Cost is more
7 Losses are less and Efficiency is more Losses are more and Efficiency is less
95% of practical applications use the Only 5% of practical applications use the
8
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

9 Speed Control is not easy Speed Control is easy

10 Low Starting Torque High Starting Torque

 Working Principle of Induction Motor
Induction Motor is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Electrical Energy (AC
Supply) into Mechanical Energy.

Step1:
V1 ==> I1 ==> Production of Magnetic Field due to MMF ==> E1

When a Voltage (V1) is applied to Stator Winding, then,

 Current (I1) passes through Stator Winding.
 Magneto Motive Force (MMF) produces Magnetic Field around the Stator Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Ø S).
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, an EMF (E1) will be
induced in Stator Winding due to alternating Magnetic Flux around the Winding.

Step2:
Production of Magnetic Field due to Mutual Induction ==> E2 ==> I2
 According to Mutual Induction, as the Rotor Winding is surrounded by the Magnetic
Field of Stator Winding, a Magnetic Field will be produced in the Rotor Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Ø r).
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, an EMF (E2) will be
induced in Rotor Winding due to alternating Magnetic Flux around the Winding.
 Current (I2) passes through Rotor Winding.

Step3:
 The directions of Stator Magnetic Flux (ØS) and Rotor Magnetic Flux (Ør) are
opposite to each other.
 Due to the opposite directions of ØS and Ør, both repel with each other and the rotor
rotates in clockwise direction.
 Alternator (AC Generator)
Main Function of Alternator
Alternator is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Mechanical Energy into Electrical
Energy (AC Supply).

Applications of Alternator
Salient Pole Alternators are used in Hydel Power Plants.
Non-Salient Pole Alternators are used in Thermal Power Plants, Gas Power Plants, Nuclear
Power Plants, Banks, Hospitals etc.

Construction of Alternator
Alternator is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Mechanical Energy into Electrical
Energy (AC Supply).

The Main Parts of Alternator are (i) Stator (ii) Rotor

(i) Stator:

Stator Core Stator Winding

 Stator is a stationary part of the Alternator.

 Stator consists of Core and Winding.
 Stator Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Stator Core is laminated.
 Stator Core consists of Slots.
 Stator Winding will be placed in the Slots.
 Stator Winding will generate 3Φ AC Supply.

(ii) Rotor:

Projected Pole Rotor Cylindrical Rotor

(Salient Pole Rotor) (Non-Salient Pole Rotor)

 Rotor is a rotating part of the Alternator.

 Rotor consists of Core and Winding.
 Rotor Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Rotor Core is laminated.
 Rotor Winding will be placed on the rotor core.
 Rotor Winding is made up of Copper (Conducting Material)
 There are two types of Rotors (or) Rotor Cores. (1) Projected Pole Rotor (or) Salient
Pole Rotor (2) Cylindrical Rotor (or) Non- Salient Pole Rotor.
 The Alternator which has “Salient Pole Rotor” is called as “Salient Pole Alternator”.
 The Alternator which has “Non-Salient Pole Rotor” is called as “Non-Salient Pole
Alternator”.
 Comparison between Salient Pole Rotor and Non-Salient Pole Rotor
Comparison between Salient Pole Alternator and Non-Salient Pole Alternator

Sl. Salient Pole Rotor / Non-Salient Pole Rotor /

No. Salient Pole Alternator Non-Salient Pole Alternator

2 Poles will be projected outside. Poles will not be projected outside.

3 Winding will be placed on the poles Winding will be placed in the slots

4 Larger diameter & smaller axial length Smaller diameter & larger axial length

5 Salient Pole Rotor has to be rotated in Non-Salient Pole Rotor can be rotated in
low speed low speed and high speed also.

6 Preferred for Low and Medium Power Preferred for High Power Applications
Applications.

Prime Movers used for this rotor are Prime Movers used for this rotor are Steam
7
Diesel Engine, Petrol Engine etc. Engines.

Non-Salient Pole Alternators are used in

Salient Pole Alternators are used in
8 Thermal Power Plants, Gas Power Plants,
Hydel Power Plants
Nuclear Power Plants, Banks, Hospitals etc.
 Working Principle of Alternator

Step1: V ==> I ==> Production of Magnetic Field due to MMF ==> E

When the rotor is rotated with a Prime Mover (Diesel Engine, Petrol Engine, Steam Engine,
Water Turbine and Wind Turbine) and When a DC Voltage is applied to Rotor Winding
through Slip Rings, then,

 Current passes through Rotor Winding.

 Magneto Motive Force (MMF) produces Magnetic Field around the Rotor Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux.
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, an EMF (E) will be
induced in Rotor Winding due to alternating Magnetic Flux around the Winding.

Step2: Production of Magnetic Field due to Mutual Induction ==> E ==> I ==> V
 According to Mutual Induction, as the Stator Winding is surrounded by the Magnetic
Field of Rotor Winding, a Magnetic Field will be produced in the Stator Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Ø).
 According to Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction, an EMF (E) will be
induced in Stator Winding due to alternating Magnetic Flux around the Winding.
 Current passes through Stator Winding.
 AC Voltage will be generated from Stator Winding.
 DC Machines
Main Function of DC Motor
DC Motor is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Electrical Energy (DC Supply)
into Mechanical Energy.

Main Function of DC Generator

DC Generator is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Mechanical Energy into
Electrical Energy (DC Supply).

Applications of DC Machines
DC Motors are used in Electric Trains, Lifts, Cranes, Stone Crushers, Water Pumps, Grinding
Machines, Printing Machines, Fans.
DC Generators are used in Electric Trains, Battery Charging, Power Supplies.
 Construction of DC Machine (or) DC Generator (or) DC Motor

The main parts of DC Machine are

(1) Poles & Field Winding (2) Armature & Armature Winding (3) Commutator & Brushes

(1) Poles and Field Winding:

 Pole is a stationary part of the DC Machine.

 Pole consists of Pole Core and Pole Shoes.
 Pole Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Pole Core is laminated.
 Field Winding will be placed on the Pole Core.
 Field Winding is made up of Copper.
 When the current passes through the Field Winding, a Magnetic Field will be
produced around the Field Winding.
 Pole Shoe distributes or spreads the Magnetic Field.
(2) Armature and Armature Winding:

 Armature is a rotating part of the DC Machine.

 Armature consists of Armature Core and Armature Winding.
 Armature Core is made up of High Grade Silicon Steel (Magnetic Material).
 Armature Core is laminated.
 Armature Core consists of Slots.
 Armature Winding will be placed in the Slots.
 Armature Winding is made up of Copper.

(3) Commutator:

 Commutator is a rotating part of the DC Machine.

 Commutator consists of Commutator Segments (a & b).
 Commutator Segments are made up of Copper.
 Commutator Segments are separated by insulating medium (Mica).
 Commutator Segments are connected to Armature Winding.
 Brushes are the stationary part of the DC Machine.
 Brushes are made up of Carbon.
 In DC Motor, Armature takes the DC Supply through Commutator and Brushes.
Commutator converts DC to AC.
 In DC Generator, Armature generates the DC Supply through Commutator and
Brushes. Commutator converts AC to DC.
 Working Principle of DC Motor
DC Motor is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Electrical Energy (DC Supply)
into Mechanical Energy.

Step1:
When a DC Voltage is applied to the Field Winding (F – FF), then,
 Current passes through the Field Winding.
 Magneto Motive Force (MMF) produces Magnetic Field around the Field Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Øf).

Step2:
When a DC Voltage is applied to the Brushes, then,
 Commutator collects the DC Voltage from Brushes
 Commutator converts DC Voltage into AC Voltage.
 Armature Winding collects the AC Voltage from Commutator.
 Current passes through the Armature Winding.
 Magneto Motive Force (MMF) produces Magnetic Field around the Armature
Winding.
 The amount of Magnetic Field is called as Magnetic Flux (Ø a).

Step3:

 The directions of Øf and Øa are opposite to each other.

 Due to the opposite directions of Øf and Øa, both repel with each other and the
armature rotates in clockwise direction.
 Working Principle of DC Generator
DC Generator is a Rotating Electrical Machine which converts Mechanical Energy into
Electrical Energy (DC Supply).

 The examples of Primer Movers are Diesel Engine, Petrol Engine, Steam Engine etc.
 Prime Mover rotates the Shaft, Armature and Commutator.
 When a DC Voltage is applied to Field Winding (F – FF), then, Current passes
through Field Winding and Magneto Motive Force (MMF) produces Magnetic Field
around the Field Winding
 When the Armature Winding is rotated in the Magnetic Field, an EMF will be
induced in the Armature Winding.
 This EMF is AC EMF. But, DC Generator has to generate DC EMF.
 Hence, Commutator is connected to Armature Winding to convert AC to DC.

 As the Commutator is rotating, it is not possible to collect the EMF and Current
through wires.
 So, two brushes are placed on the Commutator.
 As the brushes are stationary, it is easy to collect the EMF and Current through wires.
 When the Armature Winding rotates from 00 to 1800

 Conductor AB is under North Pole, Therefore, Current direction is downwards.

 Conductor CD is under South Pole, Therefore, Current direction is upwards.
 Current Path is
AB ==> a ==> 1 ==> Load ==> 2 ==> b ==> CD
 Here, Current is passing through the load from left side to right side which is our
assumption. So, Waveform is positive.
.
 When the Armature Winding rotates from 1800 to 3600

 Conductor CD is under North Pole, Therefore, Current direction is downwards.

 Conductor AB is under South Pole, Therefore, Current direction is upwards.
 Current Path is
CD ==> b ==> 1 ==> Load ==> 2 ==> a ==> AB
 Here, Current is passing through the load from left side to right side which is our
assumption. So, Waveform is positive.
 The complete Waveform of Generated EMF is
UNIT – 2 Chapter – 2 Electrical Measurements
Attraction Type MI Meter (Moving Iron Meter)
Repulsion Type MI Meter (Moving Iron Meter)
Advantages and Disadvantages of MI Meters
MC Meter (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil PMMC Meter)
Advantages and Disadvantages of MC Meters
Wheatstone Bridge

Attraction Type MI Meter

Repulsion Type MI Meter
Advantages and Disadvantages of MI Meter
MC Meter (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil PMMC Meter)
Advantages and Disadvantages of MC Meter
 Wheatstone Bridge

 Wheatstone Bridge is used to measure unknown resistance.

 Wheatstone Bridge was invented by Charles Wheatstone in the year 1843.
 Wheatstone Bridge consists of 4 arms.
 Arm AB consists of fixed resistance R1.
 Arm BC consists of fixed resistance R3.
 Arm AD consists of variable resistance R2.
 Arm CD consists of unknown resistance R4.
 Arm AC consists of Galvanometer.
 By applying KCL at Node A, I1 = I2 + Ig --------> Eqn 1

 By applying KCL at Node C, I3 + Ig = I4 --------> Eqn 2

 By applying KVL for the loop ABC, I1R1 + IgRg = I3R3 --------> Eqn 3

 By applying KVL for the loop ADC, I2R2 = I4R4 + IgRg --------> Eqn 4

 Adjust the variable resistor R2 to get null deflection in the galvanometer i.e. Ig = 0
 Eqn 1 becomes I1 = I2
 Eqn 2 becomes I3 = I4
 Eqn 3 becomes I1R1 = I3R3 ==> R1 = R3 --------> Eqn 5
 Eqn 4 becomes I2R2 = I4R4 ==> R2 = R4 --------> Eqn 6

 ==> =

 From the above equation, the unknown resistance R4 can be calculated.

What is Zener Diode?
Zener diode is defined as
The semiconductor which is heavily doped to operate in reverse direction or
in breakdown region.

The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode

consisting of a silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward direction,
that is Anode positive with respect to its Cathode, it behaves just like a
normal signal diode passing the rated current.
However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current
through itself when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more
positive than the Anode, as soon as the reverse voltage reaches a pre-
determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.

Zener Diode Symbol

The symbol for Zener diode is represented as below,

Zener Diode Circuit

We can define Zener diode as a single diode connected in a reverse bias. It
can be connected in reverse bias positive as in the circuit shown below:
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
When the Zener diode is connected, in forward bias, diode acts as a normal
diode. But Zener breakdown voltage occurs when the reverse bias voltage is
greater than a predetermined voltage.

Working of Zener Diode

The basic principle behind Zener diode working is based on the cause of
breakdown when the diode is in the reverse biased condition. For a Zener
diode there are two types of breakdown:

 Zener breakdown
 Avalanche breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown

 A conventional reverse biased diode, when subjected to its breakdown

voltage allows a significant amount of current. But when this reverse
breakdown voltage is exceeded, the diode experiences an avalanche
breakdown.
 When we increase the voltage through Zener in reverse bias mode,
first current increases uniformly with it but after it reaches the
breakdown state, the current increases massively for a very small or
negligible change in voltage. The change is sharper in Zener than the
normal diode.
Causes of Breakdown

 The breakdown is caused by two effects, the Avalanche effect and the
Zener effect. The Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts
and the avalanche effect takes over above that.
 They are both similar effects, the difference being that Zener effect is a
quantum phenomenon and the avalanche effect is the movement of
electrons in the valence band like in any electric current.
 Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than
the Zener effect.

Application of Zener Diode

Following are the applications of Zener diode:

Zener diode as voltage regulator:

Zener diode is used as Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across
small loads. The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a
wide range of current. Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make
it reverse bias and once the Zener diode exceeds knee voltage, the voltage
across the load will become constant.

Zener diode in over-voltage protection:

When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the
voltage across the resistor drops resulting in short circuit. This can be
avoided by using Zener diode.

Zener diode in clipping circuits:

Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting
the parts of either one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.

What are the advantages of Zener diode?

Following are the advantages of Zener diode:

 The size of the Zener diode is so small that it can be used in smaller
circuits and also in cell phones.
 Zener diodes are less expensive when compared to other diodes.
 Zener diodes can be used for controlling, regulating, and stabilizing
the voltage in the circuit.
 These diodes have a very high performance standard.
 The compatibility of the Zener diodes is good that they are used in
regulating voltage.
What is Zener voltage?
Zener voltage is defined as the voltage at which the Zener diode breaks
down.

How to control the breakdown voltage of Zener diode?

The breakdown voltage of Zener diode can be controlled either by adding
impurities or by increasing the doping level.

When does the Zener Diode allow reverse flow of current?

It allows the current flow in the opposite direction when the voltage is above
a certain value known as Zener Voltage or Avalanche Point or Breakdown
Voltage.

State true or False. Zener Diode exhibit controlled

breakdown.
True. Zener Diode does exhibit controlled breakdown.

How does breakdown occur?

The breakdown is caused by two effects, the Avalanche effect and the Zener
effect.

What is the difference between the Zener effect and the

avalanche effect?
The Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon whereas, the avalanche effect is
the movement of electrons in the valence band like in the case of any electric
current.
 Index

 What are counters

 Ripple (Asynchronous Counters)
 FullSequence
 Truncated

 Synchronous Counters
Counters
 Counters are sequential logic circuits that procee
through a well defined sequence of states after
application of clock pulses.
 Special type of registers with a capability of co
with the application of clock pulse
 Counters are used for a counting pulses
 Counters are constructed using Flipflops and log
 Counters are classified into two categories
 Ripple (or Asynchronous ) Counters
 Synchronous Counters
 Ripple Counters (Asynchronous Counters)

 Clock connected to the flip-flop clock input

on the LSB bit flip-flop
 For all other bits, a flip-flop output is
connected to the clock input, thus circuit is
not truly synchronous!
 Output change is delayed more for each bit
toward the MSB.
 An n-bit Asynchronous counter can have 2n
possible counting states e.g. MOD-8 for a
3-bit counter have (0-7) states
 But it is also possible to use the basic asynchrono
counter configuration to construct special counter
counting states less than their maximum output nu
 This is achieved by forcing the counter to reset it
zero at a pre-determined value producing a typ
asynchronous counter that has truncated sequenc
 Then an n-bit counter that counts up to its maxim
modulus ( 2n ) is called a full sequence counter
n-bit counter whose modulus is less than the max
possible is called a truncated counter.
Recap
 T Flip flop

Clk T Q(t+1)
0 X Q(t) No ch
0→1 0 Q(t) No ch
1→1 1 Q’(t) Comp
2-bit Ripple Up Counter (MOD-
 The toggle (T) flip-flop are being used. But we c
the JK flip-flop also with J and K connected
permanently to logic 1. External clock is applied
clock input of flip-flop A and QA output is applie
the clock input of the next flip-flop i.e. FF-B.
3-bit Ripple Up Counter (MOD-

TC QC

000
111 001

110 010

101 011
100
Exercise 1
 A) Design and explain MOD-16 Asynchronou
counter.
 B) Design and explain MOD-16 Asynchronou
counter using D Flipflops
 Ripple Counter (Truncated)
Decade Counter
 Decade Counter (MOD-10)
 Also called BCD counter 0000
 For a counter to count from 1001

0000 to 1001, four flip flops

are required. But we need to 1000

mechanism to restrict the

count to 1001 and thereafter
0111
reset the counter to 0000
again otherwise our counter
0110
(with 4 flip flops) will continue 0101
to 1111 making it MOD-16
counter instead of MOD-10.
 Decade Counter

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 This type of asynchronous counter counts upwards on each trailing ed

input clock signal starting from 0000 until it reaches an output 1001
9). Both outputs QA and QD are now equal to logic “1”. On the appl
of the next clock pulse, the output from the 74LS10 NAND gate chan
from logic “1” to a logic “0” level.
Decade Counter
 As the output of the NAND gate is connected
CLEAR ( CLR ) inputs of all the 74LS73 J-K Fli
flops, this signal causes all of the Q outputs to
reset back to binary 0000 on the count of 10

 As outputs QA and QD are now both equal t

“0” as the flip-flop’s have just been reset, the
of the NAND gate returns back to a logic lev
and the counter restarts again from 0000. W
have a decade or Modulo-10 up-counter.
Decade Counter
 By using the same idea of truncating counter
sequences, the above circuit could easily be
adapted to other counting cycles be simply
changing the connections to the inputs of
the NAND gate or by using other logic gate
combinations.
MOD-6 Asynchronous Up Count
 MOD 6 asynchronous counter will require 3 flip
flops and will count from 000 to 101.
QC
0
0
0
0
1
1

 Once the Counter reaches 101, next positive edg

the clock will make all three inputs of NAND gat
and will set its output to 0 which is connected to
all the flipflops thereby forcing all the flipflops t
to 0. With the result counter is reset to 000.
Asynchronous Down Counter
 MOD 8 Down Counter
QC
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
Asynchronous UP-Down Counter
 MOD-16 UP-DOWN counter

UP/Down = 1 → UP Counter
UP/Down = 0 → Down Counter
Synchronous Counters
 In Synchronous Counter, the external clock sign
connected to the clock input of EVERY individual
flop within the counter so that all of the flip-flop
clocked together simultaneously (in parallel) at t
same time giving a fixed time relationship. In oth
words, changes in the output occur in “synchronis
with the clock signal.
 The result of this synchronisation is that all the ind
output bits changing state at exactly the same ti
response to the common clock signal with no ripp
effect and therefore, no propagation delay.
 External clock pulses (pulses to be counted) are fed directly
of the J-K flip-flops in the counter chain and that both
the J and K inputs are all tied together in toggle mode (Hig
only in the first flip-flop, FFA (LSB) allowing the flip-flop to
every clock pulse. Then the synchronous counter follows a
predetermined sequence of states in response to the commo
signal, advancing one state for each pulse.
 The J and K inputs of flip-flop FFB are connected directly to
output QA of flip-flop FFA, but the J and K inputs of flip-
flops FFC and FFD are driven from separate AND gates wh
also supplied with signals from the input and output of the p
stage. These additional AND gates generate the required l
the JK inputs of the next stage.
 If we enable each JK flip-flop to toggle based o
whether or not all preceding flip-flop outputs (Q
“HIGH” we can obtain the same counting sequen
with the asynchronous circuit but without the ripp
effect, since each flip-flop in this circuit will be cl
at exactly the same time.
 Then as there is no inherent propagation delay i
synchronous counters, because all the counter sta
triggered in parallel at the same time, the maxim
operating frequency of this type of frequency co
is much higher than that for a similar asynchrono
counter circuit.
Synchronous Down Counter
 we can easily construct a 4-bit Synchronous Down Counte
connecting the AND gates to the Q output of the flip-flops a
to produce a waveform timing diagram the reverse of the a
Here the counter starts with all of its outputs HIGH ( 1111 )
counts down on the application of each clock pulse to zero,
before repeating again.
Synchronous Decade Counter
 A 4-bit decade synchronous counter can also be built using synchr
binary counters to produce a count sequence from 0 to 9. A stand
binary counter can be converted to a decade (decimal 10) counte
aid of some additional logic to implement the desired state seque
reaching the count of “1001”, the counter recycles back to “0000
now have a decade or Modulo-10 counter.
Synchronous Decade Counter
 The additional AND gates detect when the count
sequence reaches “1001”, (Binary 10) and cause
flop FF3 to toggle on the next clock pulse. Flip-
flop FF0 toggles on every clock pulse. Thus, the c
reset and starts over again at “0000” producing
synchronous decade counter.
Exercise
 1. Design a synchronous Mod-10 counter to c
the sequence 0,2,4,5,6,8
 2. Design a Synchronous Mod-8 counter. A co
input may be used that allow the counter to c
the up sequence or down sequence.
Reference
 M. Morris .Mano, Digital Design, Pearson, 2016
 D. K. Kaushik, Digital Electronics, D. R. Publ., 2005
 Floyed, Digital Fundamentals, 10th Ed, Pearson, 2011
 https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/counter/count_2.html
Thankyou