CIVIL ENGINEEING

Building Drawings

Engineering Drawing
Language of an engineer by which he/she can represent his/her imagination on paper with proper
dimensioning and precision is known as engineering drawing.
Types of Engineering Drawing-
• Plain geometrical Drawing. (plane - 2D)
1. Geometrical drawing
• Solid geometrical Drawing. (solid - 3D)
2. Mechanical Engg. drawing Drawing of parts of machine
3. Civil Engg. Drawing Drawing of parts of structure
4. Electrical Engg. Drawing Drawing of circuits, electrical parts etc.
DRAWING INSTRUMENT
Drawing instrument is used to prepare drawing easily and accurately. Following Instruments are
used in engineering drawing-
Following Instruments are used in engineering drawing-
1. Drawing Board 2. T-Square
3.. Mini-Drafter (MD) 4. Protractor
5. Pencil 6. Set square
7. Scale 8. French curve
9. Drawing Sheet 10. Eraser (Rubber)
11. Divider 10. Eraser (Rubber)
11. Divider 12. Compass
13. Drawing board pins, Clips or Cello tape 14. Clinograph
15. Pencil cutter and sand paper
1. Drawing Board
Drawing board is in rectangular shape and made of
well-seasoned softwood strip.
EBONY BATTENS
• I-strip protect drawing board from warping. WORKING
EDGE
• One of the edges of the board is used as
working edge, on which the T-square is
made to slide.
Sizes of drawing board-
STRIPS
• According to IS:1944-1989, drawing board
BOTTOM
is represented by 'D'. DRAWING BOARD
• According to IS:1946-1988, drawing board
is represented by 'B'.
Standard size and designation of drawing board-

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Designation of drawing board Size (in mm) : (Length × Width × Thickness)

D0 1500×1000×25
D1 1000×700×25
D2 700×500×15
D3 500×350×15
D4 350×250×15
• Mostly imperial size (D2) drawing board is used in engineering drawing.
2. T-Square-
Made of hard-quality wood such as teak or mahogany etc.
• Stock and blade joined together at right angle.
• It is used horizontal and parallel lines.
• T-square is not used to draw inclined lines.
▪ T-square is named by blade length.
3. Mini-Drafter-
All the advantages of T-square, set-
square, scale and the protractor are
available in mini-drafter. Mini-drafter
are used to draw horizontal, vertical and
inclined parallel lines on the sheet with
saving of time.
4. Protractor
• It is made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic material.
• These are circular semi-circular or flat in shape.
• Protractor are used to measure angles and to draw angles with L.C. = 1°.

5. Pencil
• Lead of pencil is made of graphite powder or kaolin or clay.
• Drawing pencils are graded according to increase in relative hardness.
Grades of pencil and its use-
Grade of pencil Uses
Hard grade : (9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, 4H) Used to draw light and fine lines
Medium grade : (3H, 2H, H, HB, B) Used for lettering and Dimensioning
Soft grade : (2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B) Used to draw thick and shiny lines

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9H Very hard grade pencil (Clay content↑)

7B Very soft grade pencil (Graphite content↑)
2H Use to draw thin line, outer lines, dimension line, dotted line and arrow head.
HB Used to draw thick line.
3H or 4H Used to draw to center line and section line.
• Generally 20 grade of pencils are used.

Fine Pencil

9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B
Hard Soft
Smudges Easier Standard S chool Pencil More Black

B = Black
HB = Mid grade
H = Hard
F = Fine
6. Set-Square
Triangular in shape & are made of celluloid or plastic materials.
• It is used for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal lines which are usually drawn
with the T-square.
• Vertical lines can be drawn with the T-square and set-square.
• The angle which is divisible by 150 are made with the help of set square.
Ex.-150, 300, 1050, 1200, 1650 etc. 30° 30°
• They are following two type – 45° 45° 30° 30°
(a) 45° – 45° – 90° set square 45° 45° 30° 30°
(b) 30° – 60° – 90° set square
7. Rule or Scale
30°
Scales are made of wood, steel, celluloid or 45°
plastic. It is used to draw straight lines.
• Edges of the scale are marked with
division of centimeters which are
sub-divided into millimeters. 45° 60° 90°

(a) 45° Set Square (b) 30° - 60° Set Square

8. French Curve
French curves is a flexible curve consists of a lead bar inside rubber which bends conveniently to
draw a smooth curve through any set of points.
• Used to draw curve which can not be drawn with compass (for irregular curve)
9. Drawing Sheet
Size of drawing sheet is represented by ratio of length and width of the sheet.
x : y = 1: 2 Where, x → Length of sheet
y → Width of sheet

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Standard size of the drawing sheet as per IS : 10811 : 1983

Designation of Sheet Trimmed size (in mm) Area, m2 Sheet Name
A0 841 × 1189 1 Anti Quarian
A1 594 × 841 ½ Double Elephant
A2 420 × 594 ¼ Imperial
A3 297 × 420 1/8 Half Imperial
A4 210 × 297 1/16 Quarter Imperial
A5 148 × 210 1/32 –
• A2 size drawing sheet is mostly used by engineering drawing students.
▪ Untrimmed size of drawing sheet is approximately 30 mm greater than trimmed size.
10. Rubber or Eraser
It is made of rubber and used to erase extra or wrong pencil work.
11. Divider
Divider is used to divide straight or curved lines into desired number of equal parts.
12. Compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs of circles of required diameter.
13. Drawing clips or drawing pins
These are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in their position to the drawing board.
14. Clinograph
Clinograph is a drawing instrument which works with a T-square and function like an adjustable
setsquare.
• It is made of wood or plastic
• It is an instrument used to draw inclined parallel lines.

SCALE
The proportion by which we either reduce or increase the actual size of the object on drawing sheet
is called scale.

CLASSIFICATION OF SCALE-
(A) According to the size-
Enlarging scale Scale, X : 1 (X>1 )
• Drawing is drawn with the bigger dimensions comparison to the actual dimensions of the
objects.
• Used for small objects that's need to be enlarged.
• R.F. > 1
Full scale Scale 1 : 1
• Used for drawing that parts which are drawn easily on the sheet with their actual size.
Ex.- Spanner, pen, nut-bolt etc.
• R.F. = 1

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Reducing scale Scale 1 : X (X <1)

• Used when the dimensions on the drawing sheets are smaller than the actual dimension of
the object.
• It is used to represent a big object.
Ex.-Buildings, bridges, boilers, ships, aeroplanes etc.
• R.F. < 1
Graphical scale-
Scale is drawn an the drawing itself. It takes care the shrinkage of the engineers scale when the
drawing becomes old.
Representative Fraction (R.F.)-
It is the ratio of the size of object on the drawing sheet and actual size of the same object.
Length of object on thedrawing Map distance
R.F. = or = (In terms of length)
Actuallength of object Ground distance
Area of object on thedrawing
=2 (In terms of area)
Actualarea of object

Area of object on thedrawing

=3 (In terms of volume)
Actual volumeof object

Lengthof scale = R.F. Max.length tobemeasured

• R.F. is unitless.
(B) According to type-
1. Plain scale : It measure two consecutive division or unit.
Ex. m - dcm, dcm - cm, yard - feet
2. Diagonal scale : It can measure three consecutive division or units.
Ex. m - dcm - cm, yard - feet - inch.
3. Vernier scale
• These scales, like diagonal scale, are used to read a very small unit with great accuracy.
• It consists of two parts– 1. Primary scale 2. Vernier scale
• In forward vernier scale, n divisions on vernier scale is equal to (n–1) division on main scale.
• In backward vernier scale, n divisions on vernier scale is equal to (n + 1) division on main
scale.
4. Comparative scale : It is a plain scale having same R.F. but calibrated to read different units.
Ex. km – mile, km – minute etc.
5. Scale of chords : It is used to measure or draw angles in absence of protractor.
Layout of drawing sheets- 5 mm
(a) Margins or border lines-
20 mm

Left side - 20 mm
Other three side - 5 mm 18.5 mm
(b) Title block Location 65 mm Title
block
Right side & lower most of the drawing sheet.
5 mm
Size - 185 mm × 65 mm

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Title block-
20 25 25
Name Date 10
Naming of Institute
Designed 7
Drawn 7
Checked 7
Standard 7
Approved 7
10 Scale Title Drawing No.
20
10 Project
symbol
185

All dimensions in mm

SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION
Sign Conventional representation of materials-
Sign Convention Material Sign Convention Material
Steel, cast iron, copper Porcelain, stoneware,
and its alloys, aluminium marble, slate etc.
and its alloys etc.
White-metal like Lead, Asbestos fiber, felt, cork,
zinc, tin, etc. linoleum, rubber, leather,
wax, insulating and filling
materials
Glass Wood, plywood etc.

Object Convention Object Convention

Spot weld Exhaust fan

Plug weld Regulator

Seem weld
Fuse
(Continuous welding)
Ceiling fan (Two blade) /

Conventional Representation of Breaks–

Object Convention

Rectangular section

Round Section

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Pipe

Tubing

Wood rectangular section

Rolled Section

Channel Section

Types of Lines, Lettering & Dimensioning-

Out lines • Lines drawn to represent visible edges and surface
boundaries of objects.
• Also known as object lines or principal lines.
• Represented by continuous thick lines.
Dimension lines • Continuous thin lines, used for giving dimensions of
drawing.
• It is terminated at its outer end with an arrow head
touching the outline, extension line or centre line.
Extension or projection lines • Continuous thin lines, used for dimensioning an object.
• Extended by about 3 mm beyond the dimension lines.

Construction lines • Thin continuous lines used in solid projection

Section or Hatching lines • Thin continuous lines, used to show the section
evidently.
• These are uniformly spaced thin lines (0.7 mm spaced)
and inclined at 45° to the main outline of the section.
Leader or pointer lines • Continuous thin lines drawn to connect a note with the
specific feature in the drawing.
• Angles should not be less than 30° (usually 45°).
• Leader line establish relation between text and drawing
of any item.
Short break lines • Continuous, thin and wavy free hand lines drawn to
show the break of an object for a short length.
• Also used to show irregular boundaries
Long Break Lines • Thin ruled lines provided with short zig-zags at suitable
intervals.
• Drawn to show long breaks

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Hidden or Dotted lines • Closely and evenly spaced dashes lines of equal lengths
(2 mm).
• These are medium thick lines and are used to show the
invisible or hidden parts of the object in the drawing.
Centre lines • These are thin, long, chain lines composed of
alternatively long and short dashes spaced at an
approximately 1 mm distance.
• It divide the section into two equal parts.
Cutting-plane lines/ • These are long, thin chain line with thick ends.
Thick end line • Used to show the location of cutting plane.

Thick chain lines • Used to indicate special treatment on the surface

Chain thick double-dashed • Used to show outlines of adjacent parts, alternative and
lines extreme positions of movable parts, centroidal lines
and parts situated in front of the cutting plane.
Margin lines • Continuous thick or wide lines along which the prints
are trimmed.
Hatching line • Hatching line is used to indicate that object has cut by
the cutting plane and then it viewed. It drawn usually at
450 with uniform distance of 2.5 mm.
Minimum thickness of thick line = 0.5 mm

LETTERING
Mainly two types of lettering is used in Engg. drawing-
1. Gothic lettering 2. Roman lettering
1. Gothic lettering
Lettering having all the alphabets or numerals of uniform thickness called gothic lettering.
• This lettering is most common style used in working drawing and most appropriate because
of it is easy to read & write consist of uppercase letter, lowercase letter and numerals. Gothic
lettering is also classified into two types.
Vertical Gothic Lettering (a) Single stroke vertical Gothic lettering
(b) Double stroke vertical Gothic lettering
Italic or inclined Gothic lettering (c) Single stroke Italic Gothic lettering
(Letters inclined at 75o to the horizontal) (d) Double stroke Italic Gothic lettering
2. Roman lettering
The lettering in which all the letters are formed by thick and thin elements is called Roman
lettering.
• It may be vertical or inclined.
Single stroke letters are two types– (i) Vertical (ii) Inclined
• The size of letters are described by its height. They are classified by-
 h  h
(i) Lettering 'A' ⇒  d =  (ii) Lettering 'B' ⇒  d = 
 14   10 

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(Where, d = thickness of letters, h = height of letters)

Recommended size (height, h) of letters/numbers-
Main Title - 5 mm, 7 mm, 10 mm
Sub- Title - 3.5 mm, 5 mm
Dimensions, notes etc. - 2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5 mm

DIMENSIONING
Types of dimensions
1. Size dimension (Denoted by 'S')
2. Location Dimension (Denoted by 'L')

System of dimensioning-
1. Aligned system • They are read from the bottom edge or right hand side
of the drawing sheet.
• Dimensions are placed at the middle and above top of
the dimension lines.
2. Uni-direction system • Dimensions are placed in such a way that they can be
read from the bottom edge of the drawing sheet.
• Dimensions are inserted by breaking the dimension lines
at the middle.
Types of Dimensioning-
1. Chain dimensioning A series of adjacent dimensions are arranged in one horizontal
row.
Used when tolerance accumulated on each of the chain
dimensions does not affect the functional requirement of the
part.
2. Parallel dimensioning • Dimensions are measured in the same direction from a
common surface or line.
• All the dimensions from the same feature is called
parallel dimensioning.
3. Combined dimensioning Both the chain and parallel dimensions are used in the same
drawing.
4. Progressive dimensioning Adopted when dimension has to be established from a particular
datum.
5. Dimensioning by This method is done when a number of holes of different sizes
coordinates have to be dimensioned.

Equidistant Dimensioning-
Dimension is calculated by the product of the number of spacing and dimension value. A point is
set to be equidistant for a set of objects if the.

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Repeated dimensions-
When certain features or elements of the same size are repeated a number of times on drawing, to
avoid repetition of the same dimension everywhere, the product of a number of repeated feature and
the dimensions value may be indicated only at one such feature.
Conic sections-
Curves, which are obtained when a double cone is intersected by a plane at different angles relative
to the axis of the double cone.
• Mainly there are three types of conic sections–
1. Ellipse 2. Parabola 3. Hyperbola
Note-
• Circle, rectangular parabola etc. are special case of conic section.
Ellipse • Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, inclined to the axis
of the cone and cutting all the generators.
• Angle of inclination of the cutting plane with the axis of the cone
> the angle of generator with the axis.
Parabola Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, inclined to the axis of the
cone and parallel to one of the generators.
Hyperbola Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, inclined to the axis of the
cone at an angle < The inclination angle of the generator with the axis.
Circle Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, parallel to the base of the
cone.
Properties of conic section
Conic section Standard equation Eccentricity
Circle x2 + y2 = r2 e=0
Parabola y2 = 4ax e=1
Ellipse x2 y2 e<1
+ =1
a2 b2
Hyperbola x2 y2 e>1
− =1
a2 b2

PROJECTION AND VIEW

Principle of Projection-
If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet a plane, the object
is said to be projected on that plane and that plane are called plane of projection.
• The image of object on the plane of projection is called projection of the object.

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Classification of Projection-

1. Pictorial Projection-
Pictorial view shows all three dimensions in one view.
• It provides a realistic view of a 3D object.
Types of pictorial projection-
(a) Oblique projection-
One dimension of object is parallel to H.P. and second is
vertical to the horizontal or parallel to V.P. and the third is
at an angle of 30o or 45o to the H.P.
Types of oblique projection-
Cavalier Projection • Projection lines make an angle of
30°, 45° or 60° with the plane of
projection.
• Reading line are drawn to full
size scale.

Cabinet Projection • Projection lines make an angle

with the projection plane, it
becomes about. both the axes
by decreasing scale.
• Difference b/w cavalier and
cabinet projection is how the
depth of the object.

Cliongraphic projection • In cavalier and cabinet projections, the main face of the
object is made parallel to the projection plane. In some
cases, when the object is rotated at an angle, the plane of
projection is called cliongrahic plane.
(b) Perspective projection-
Linear projection where three dimensional objects are projected on a picture plane is known as
perspective projection.
• In this projection the image of object is greater than the original object.
Ex. - Projector.

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(c) Axonometric projection

Isometric Projection Dimetric Projection Trimetric Projection
All the three faces of cube Two faces of cube make All three faces of cube
make equal angles with the equal angles with plane. make unequal angles with
plane. plane.

Remember-
In Isometric view shape conversion
Circle ⇒ Ellipse
Square ⇒ Rhombus
Rectangle ⇒ Parallelogram

Methods of projection used in Engineering Drawing-

1. Orthographic projection
2. Isometric projection
3. Oblique projection
4. Perspective projection
2. Orthographic Projection-
When the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called
orthographic projection.
• In orthographic projection methods, an object is
represented by two or three view on an
perpendicular projection planes.
• Each projection view represents two dimension of
an object.
• For the complete description of the three
dimensional object in this projection, at least two
or three views are required.
Planes of orthographic projection-
• Two planes employed for purpose of orthographic projection are called principal planes (i.e.
H.P. and V.P.)
• They intersect each other at right angles (90°).
Note - The line at which V.P. and H.P. intersect is called Reference line (XY).
• Projection on the V.P. - Front view or elevation
• Projection on the H.P. - Top view or plan
• Projection on the A.V.P. - Side view

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Quadrants system of orthographic projection-

Quadrant Object position
First In front of V.P. and above the H.P.
Second Behind the V.P. and above the H.P.
Third Behind the V.P. and below the H.P.
Fourth In front of V.P. and below the H.P.

Difference between first angle and third angle projection-

First angle projection Third angle projection

• Object lies between the observer • Plane of projection lies between

and the plane of projection. observer and object.
• Plane of projection is assumed to be • Plane of projection is assumed to be
nontransparent. transparent.
• H.P. and V.P. is located below and
• H.P. and V.P. is located respectively
above the reference line (X-Y lines)
above and below the reference line.
respectively.
• Projection is drawn apposite to the • Projection is drawn same side to the
viewer side viewer

Front view- Front view-

Above X-Y line Below X-Y line
Top view- Top view-
Below X-Y line Above X-Y line
Right view- Right view-
Above X-Y line parallel to V.P. and in left Below X-Y line parallel to V.P. and in right of
of elevation. elevation.
Left view- Left view-
Above X-Y line parallel to V.P. and in Below X-Y line parallel to V.P. and in left of
right ofelevation. elevation.
• This method of projection is used in • This method of projection is used in
India and Europe. U.S.A.

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Difference between Perspective and Parallel Projection (i.e. Orthographic Projection)–

Orthographic
Perspective Projection
Projection

• Observer is situated at infinite distance • Observer is situated at finite distance

from the object. from the object.
• Projection rays (or projectors) are • Projection rays are intersect at view
parallel. point.
• Projection has same size of original • Objects appear smaller the farther away
object. they are.
Application– Architecture, computer aided Application– Animation, visual simulation
design etc. etc.
Auxiliary plane –
Sometimes two views of object (front view & top view) are not sufficient to convey all information
regarding the object. In this condition the additional view, called auxiliary view and projected on
that plane known as auxiliary plane.
Auxiliary view may also be used for determining–
(a) The true length of a line
(b) The point view of a line
(c) The edge view of a plane
(d) The true size and form of a plane.
Types of auxiliary plane
1. Profile plane- It is vertical to the H.P. and V.P. both.
2. Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
3. Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P)
• A.V.P. is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P.
• A.I.P. is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.
▪ Projection of side view of the object is drawn on auxiliary
plane.

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Miter line-
• Miter line is used to construct side view.
• This line is drawn at 45° to the horizontal.
Projection of straight line-
1. When line parallel to one or both the planes–
i. When a line parallel to both Top view- A line of
planes(H.P. and V.P.) true length and parallel
to XYline.
Front view- A line of
true length and parallel
to XYline.
Side view- Point

ii. When a line is parallel to H.P. Top view- A line of true

and inclined to V.P.- length and inclined to
XYline (ab = AB)
Front view- A line
smaller than true length
and parallel to XY-line
(a' b' < AB)

iii. When a line parallel to V.P. and Top view- A line

inclined to H.P. smaller than true length
and parallel to XY-line
(ab < AB)
Front view- A line of
true length and inclined
to XYline. (a'b' = AB)

2. Line contained by one or both the planes–

i. Line contained by horizontal plane Top view- A line of true length (ab = AB)
(H.P.) Front view- A line smaller than true length in
XY-line (a'b' < AB).

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ii. Line contained by vertical plane Top view- A line smaller than true length in
(V.P.) XYline.
Front view- A line of true\ length.

iii. Line contained by both plane Its front view and top view coincide with
(H.P. and V.P.) each other in XY line.
V.P. a' Front view b'
X= –y
H.P a Top view b

3. Line perpendicular to one of the plane

i. Line perpendicular to horizontal Top view- A point

plane (H.P.) Front view- A line of true length perpendicular to
Xyline

ii. Line perpendicular to vertical Top view- A line of true length perpendicular to
plane (V.P.) XYline
Front view- A point

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4. Line inclined to both planes (H.P. and V.P.)–

Top view-
A line smaller than
true length inclined
to XY-line
Front view-
A line smaller than
true length inclined
to XY-line.
• When a line is parallel to a plane , its projection on that plane will show its true length and
true inclination with the other plane.
Trace of a line-
• When a line is inclined to a plane, it will meet that plane, produced if necessary.
• The point in which the line or produced line meets the plane is called its trace.
• The point of intersection of the line with H.P. is called horizontal trace (H.T.).
• The point of intersection of the line with V.P. is called vertical trace (V.T.)
• When a line is parallel to a plane it has no trace upon that plane
Projection of a plane-
Plane-
Plane have only two dimensions (i.e. length and breath). They do not have thickness.
1. Projection of plane, perpendicular to In this case, H.T. and V.T. are in a straight
both the H.P. and V.P. line, perpendicular to XY-line.
Top view and front view-
A line perpendicular to XY-line.

2. Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other plane
i. Plane, perpendicular to the H.P. and • Its H.T. is parallel to XY-line.It has no
parallel to the V.P. V.T.
Top view-
A line parallel to XY-line
Front view-
A plane of true shape and size

ii. Plane perpendicular to the V.P. and Its V.T. is parallel to XY-line. It has no
parallel to the H.P. H.T.

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Top view-A plane of true

shape and size
Front view- A line
parallel to XY-line

3. Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane and inclined to the other plane–
i. Plane perpendicular to H.P. and Its V.T. is perpendicular to XY-line and
inclined to V.P. H.T, is inclined to XY-line.
Top view-
A line inclined to XY-line
Front view-
A plane smaller than true size of plane.

ii. Plane perpendicular to V.P. and Its V.T. is inclined to XY-line and H.T.
inclined to H.P. perpendicular to XY-line.
Top view-
A plane smaller than true size of plane
Front view-
A line inclined to XY-line

PROJECTION OF SOLID
A solid has three dimension (i.e.-length breadth and thickness)
Types of solid–
(1) Polyhedral
(2) Solids of revolution
1. Polyhedral-
A polyhedron is defined as a solid bonded by planes called faces.
Ex- Tetrahedron, Cube, Prism, Pyramid, Octahedron, Dodecahedron Icosahedraon etc.
2. Solid of revolution-
Ex.- Cylinder , Cone , Sphere

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PROJECTION OF SOLIDS
When the axis of solid perpendicular to one plane, it is parallel to the other–
Projection of a solid on the plane to which its axis is perpendicular , will show the true shape and
size of its base.
i. When the axis of solid is perpendicular to the H.P. the top view should be drawn first and front
view projected from it.
ii. When the axis of solid is perpendicular to V.P. beginning should be made with front view, top
view should be projected from it.
iii. When the axis is parallel to both the H.P and the V.P., neither the top view nor the front view,
will show the actual shape of the base.
When the axis is parallel to both the H.P. and V.P., an auxiliary plane (side view) will show the
actual shape of the base.
Note
(i) The part of the object between the cutting plane and the observer is assumed to be removed and
the view is then shown in section.
(ii) The surface produced by cutting the object by the section plane is called the section.
(iii) It is indicated by thin section lines uniformly spaced and inclined at 45°.
(iv) The projection of the section along with the remaining portion of the object is called a sectional
view.

19 Engineering Drawing RRB-JE SHORTNOTES