PHY 111

Handout V
2.0 OPTICS

2.1 Review of mirrors and lenses

A ray of light is the direction along which the light energy travels. A collection of rays is called a
beam of light.
(a) The laws of reflection
(i) the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane.
(ii) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(b) Curved mirrors (spherical mirrors)
There are two types of curved mirrors, called the concave and convex mirrors, as illustrated
below.

where P is the pole of the mirror, C is the centre of curvature, AB is the aperture of the mirror
and PC is the principal axis
For a convex mirror, when a beam of parallel rays is incident on it, the reflected rays form a
divergent beam which appears to come from a point F behind the mirror. It forms a virtual
image.

For a concave mirror, when a beam of parallel rays is incident on it, the reflected rays converge
to a point F on the principal axis. It forms a real image.

(c) Relationship between focal length f and radius of curvature

1
Consider a ray AM, parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror of small aperture, is
reflected through the principal focus F. If C is the centre of curvature, then CM is the normal
to the mirror at M. By the law of reflection

 AMC =  CMF = 
 AMC =  MCF (alteranting angles)
  MC F=  CMF

 FCM is thus isosceles and FC=FM. If M is very close to P then

FM = FP,  FC = FP or FP = 1/2 CP
but
FP = f, CP = r
 f = 1/2 r

(d) Mirror formula

The diagram above shows a ray OM from a point object O on the pricipal axis reflected at M so
that the angle , made by the incident and reflected rays with the normal CM, are equal. Let
angles ,  and  be as shown. In
 CMO,  =  + 
 =  -  ………………………………………(i)
 CMI  =  + 
 =  +  ………………………………………(ii)
  -  =  + ,
2 =  + ……………………………………..(iii)

If the mirror is of small aperture, then M will be close to P and ,  and  are small.
 tan  = , tan =  , tan  = 

2
 MP MP MP
 ,  ,
OP CP IP

Substituting in (iii) above

MP MP MP 2 1 1
2   ,  
CP OP IP CP OP IP

CP-radius of curvature, r
OP-object distance, u
IP-image distance ,v

2 1 1 r 1 2
  but f   
r u v 2 f r
1 1 1
  Real Image
f u v
1 1 1
  virtual image
f u v

(e) Magnification M

The lateral or linear magnification M, produced by a mirror is defined as

Length of the image

M .
Length of the object

To find the magnification graphically, three types of rays are very important as shown in the
diagram.

3
 h ' Image distance v
m  
h object distance u

Thin Lenses
A lens is an object, usually made of glass, bounded by one or two spherical surfaces. Types of
lenses are

The following diagrams show the rays falling on the convex and concave lenses.

4
The lens formula

u - object distance
v - image distance
f - focal length

1 1 1
 
f v u
To distinguish real and virtual images and converging and diverging lenses, we employ the
following sign convention:
(i) f is positive for converging lens
f is negative for diverging lens
(ii) u and v are positive for converging lens
u and v are negative for diverging lens

The relationship between the focal length of thin lens, the radii of curvarture of its surfaces, r1
and r2, and the refractive index of the lens material n, is given by

1 1
 n - 1  
1
f  r1 r2 

Example
An object is placed 20cm from (a) a converging lens, (b) a diverging lens, of focal length 15cm.
Calculate the image position and magnification in each case.

Soln.
(a) Converging

5
1 1 1 1 1 1
     , v   60cm
f v u v 20 15
v 60
m  3
u 20
The image is real, and is three times as high as the object.

(b) Diverging

1 1 1 1 1 1
    - , v   8.6cm
f v u v 20 15
60
( )
v 3
m  7 
u 20 7

The image is virtual and three-sevenths as high as the object.

Relationship between m and f

1 1 1
  multiply by v
f v u
v v v v
1   , but  m  m  - 1
u f u f

Power of a lens
The shorter the focal length of a lens, the more it converges or diverges light. The power F of a
lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length f in metres.

1
Power , F 
f

Defects of Lenses
Our previous discussion of formation of images by spherical mirrors and lenses has been
confined to paraxial rays, i.e., rays close to the axis and making very small angles with it.
However, when rays are non-paraxial and objects are extended and mirrors and lenses are of
large aperture, the image can differ in shape, sharpness and colour from the object. This is
called image defect or aberrations.

(a) Spherical aberration

The paraxial rays and non-paraxial which fall on the lens are not brought to a common focal
point. The rays close to the principal axis are focused on one point and the rays outward are
focused on a different focal point.

6
- The rays from the object which is close to the principal axis are focused at O'
- Rays from object at the outer parts of the lens are focused at O
- The image is found between O and O' in a circle form. The resultant image is not clear.

Correction
Use an opaque disc having a hole in it so that light only incident at the middle to cut off
marginal rays, but this has the disadvantage of the image being less bright.

(b) Chromatic aberration

This defect is in the colouring of the image. The white light is dispersed into different colours
and brought to different focal points as shown below for red and blue lights. This is because of
dispersion. A single lens has slightly different focal lengths for various colours which make up
white light.

Correction
Can be corrected by placing diverging lens beside the convex lens. This causes the deviations
produced to be in the opposite directions. They are arranged in such a way that it is possible
for the dispersion to cancel out.

7
Optical Instruments
Visual angle and angular magnification
The near point - The position at which an object is seen most clearly is called the near point.
This distance is called the least distance of distinct vision (D  25cm) from the eye. At the near
point, the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object is given as 

If  is small then tan  

Magnifying glass (Simple microscope)

When a converging lens is is caused to produce a virtual, upright and enlarged image it is being
used as a magnifying glass. Generally, the magnifying power (angular magnification)


M


 - the angle subtended at the eye by the image

 - the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object.
Image at near point


With an aid M ,

, | This assumes that  is a small angle 
hi
where  
D
h
without an aid,   o
D
hi
 M  D  i  m m is lateral magnificat ion 
h
ho ho
D
Different method for M
ho ho
 , 
u D
ho
D
 M  u 
ho u
D
D
Show that M 1
f
8
Image at infinity


M ,


ho
D
 M  f 
ho f
D

Compound Microscope

The microscope is used to obtain greater magnifying power. It consists of two separated
converging lenses of short focal lengths. L1 is near to the object, and it is called the objective.
It forms a real magnified inverted image I1 of an object O placed just outside its principal focus
Fo. I1 is just inside the principal focus Fe of the second lens L2 called the eyepiece, which acts as
a magnifying glass and produces a magnified virtual image I2 of I1.

Magnifying power
h h
= 2 ,  =
D D

9
  h2
M = 
 h
h 2 h1
M = x
h1 h
h2
 linear magnification Me produced by the eyepiece
h1
h1
 linear magnification Mo due to the objactive
h

V  D 
M = Me x Mo , Mo =  1 1 , Me =  1
 fo   fe 
V D 
Thus M =  1 1  1
 fo   fe 

And so M is large when fo and fe are small

Astronomical Telescope

It consists of two converging lenses: one is an objective of long focal length and the other an
eyepiece of short focal length fe. The objective L1 forms a real diminished inverted image I1 of
an infinity object at its principal focus Fo The eyepiece L2 acts like a magnifying glass and forms
a magnified virtual image of I. At normal adjustment final image is at infinity, therefore I1 must
be at the principal focus Fe of L2, hence Fe and Fo coincide.

Magnifying power
h h
 = 1 ,  = 1
fe fo

10
 
h1
f f
M = = h = o e

 1
f o
fe
This expression for M is true only for normal adjustment: the separation between objective and
eyepiece then fe+fo.
Telescope with final image at near point

h1 h
 = ,  = 2
fo D
 h2
fo h 2
M = = D
= x
 h1
fo D h1
h2 V D
But = m = -1 = -1
h1 fe fe
fo  D 
Thus M =  1
D  f e 
PARTICLE AND WAVE THEORIES
Interference of light
Interference occurs whenever two waves come together. The following are the two conditions
which need to be fulfilled if interference is to be observed.
(i) The source must be coherent, i.e. there must be a constant phase difference between
them and therefore they must have the same frequency.
(ii) The waves that are interfering must have approximately the same amplitude.
Constructive interference: Occurs when we have two waves superposed at the same
phase.
Destructive interference: Occurs when the two waves are out of phase.
Young's Double-Slit Experiment

11
The first demonstration of optical interference was done by Thomas Young in 1801. The
diagram was as shown below.

S, S1 and S2 are narrow slits which are parallel to each other. S diffracts the light that falls on it,
and so illuminates both S1 and S2. Diffraction also occurs at S1 and S2 and interference occurs in
the region where the light from S1 overlaps that from S2.

A series of alternating bright and dark bands (interference fringes), which are equally spaced and
parallel to the slits, can be observed on a screen placed anywhere in the region of overlap.
Calculation of fringe separation

Suppose P is the position of the mth bright fringe. Then

BP - AP =m

12
Let O be the center of the fringe system and OP = Xm. Let MO be the perpendicular bisector
of AB. If a length PN=PA then BN=BP-AP=m.. AN is the perpendicular bisector of BP.

<PMO = <BAN = 

BN m
From triangle BAN, sin = 
AB a

PO X
From triangle PMO, tan =  m
MO D

From small  , tan    sin

Thus tansin

Xm m
=
D a

m D
or Xm =
a
If we have mth and (m-1)th fringes then the separation y between successive fringes

y = Xm - Xm-1
D
y=
a
ay
Therefore  =
D
Interference on thin films
The brilliant colours that are sometimes seen when light is reflected from a soap bubble or a
thin layer of floating oil on water are produced by the interference effects between two light
waves reflected at opposite surfaces of the thin film of soap solution or oil.

13
The two reflected rays bc and ef interfere either constructively or destructively depending on
their phase relationship. Since white light has different colours and hence different
wavelengths, the colours we see are constructively interfered and those we do not see are
destructively interfered.

Interference in thin wedge film

An air wedge is a wedge shaped film of air such as could be produced by placing the edge of a
razor blade or a piece of thin foil between two microscope slides at one end only. There is a
geometrical (optical) path difference of 2d between the waves from X and those from Y. The
waves reflected at Y are being reflected at a more dense medium and therefore undergo a phase

change of , which is equivalent to optical path difference of **. Waves reflected at X suffer
2
no such phase changes.
2d = n , n = 0,1,2,3,4, - - -
which represents dark fringes
2d = (n-½)l , n = 1, 2, 3, 4, - - -
which represents bright fringes
d h
tan = 
l L
hl
thus d =
L

Newton's rings
Newton discovered an example of interference which is known as Newton's rings.

14
A lens L is placed on a sheet of plane glass HT having a lower surface of very large radius of
curvature. G reflects monochromatic light from S to the lens L, and when light is reflected
from points P and A it is observed through a microscope M. This forms dark and bright rings
with the dark ring at the center. If t is the distance between P and A then

2t = n for dark fringes

2t = (n+½) for bright fringes
The observed pattern is shown below

Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of light around the edges of barriers.

The plane waves passing through an opening spreads so long as the size of the aperture is close
to the wavelength of the waves.
There are two types of diffraction patterns:
(i) Fresnel diffraction (ii) Fraunhoffer diffraction
(i) Fresnel diffraction

Diffracted light is focused to the screen without using the lens. The phenomena is called
Fresnel diffraction.

(ii) Fraunhoffer diffraction

15
The diffraction pattern appears on a screen in the second focal plane of the lens. The
phenomena is called Fraunhoffer diffraction.

Diffraction pattern of a single slit

The minima

For destructive interference to occur at D then the path difference is **


AN =
2

ACsin =
2
a 
sin =
2 2
a sin =
for n fringes then

n
sin = this is the angular position of the minimum
a

16
When a>> then sin  
n
Therefore =
a

Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is an arrangement which consists of a large number of closely spaced
parallel lines ruled on glass or polished metal. Each space acts like a very narrow slit and
diffracts the incident light. It is used to produce optical spectra and for measuring wavelengths.

There are two types of grating:

(a) Transmission grating: glass is used; the lines scatter the incident light and are more or
less opaque while the spaces between them transmit light and act like slits.
(b) Reflection gratings: the lines ruled on metal are again opaque, but the unruled parts
reflect regularly.

This has the advantage that radiations absorbed by reflection grating material can be studied

and if it is ruled on a concave spherical surface it focuses the radiations as well as diffracting it
and no lenses are needed.
AB is the grating element. Path difference for a given maximum is given by
 = asin
Then for m order of spectra
asin =m

POLARIZATION

17
(a) The phenomena of polarization
There are two types of wave motion:- longitudinal and transverse. These two types of waves
may be distinguished in that transverse waves can be polarized while longitudinal waves cannot
be polarized. If all the vibrations of a transverse wave are in a single plane which contains the
directions of propagation of the wave, the wave is said to be plane-polarized (or linearly
polarized).

Wave A is plane-polarized to the XY-plane and wave B is plane-polarized in the XZ-plane.

(b) Polarization and light waves
Light is an electromagnetic wave in which the electric and magnetic fields are oscillating with
the same frequency but tangential to each other. The direction of oscillation of the E and B are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Light is a transverse wave and that is why it can
be polarised in different ways.

The direction of propagation is given by ExB. When light interacts with matter, effects of the
electric field usually dominate those of the magnetic field. For example, it can be shown by
experiment that it is the electric component of light which affects photographic film and which

18
produces fluorescence. Hence the plane which contains the electric field is regarded as the
plane of polarization. Waves may be polarized in plane, circular or elliptical.

(c) Measure of polarization

A polarizer is an optical device that selectively transmits light having its plane of polarization
parallel to that of the polarizer transmission axis, but blocks the light with its plane of
polarization tangential to the transmission axis.

A second polarizer called analyser is used to determine the intensity of polarized light which is
transmitted by a polariser. The azimuth angle  is a measure of the orientation of the polariser's
transmission axis relative to the analyser's transmission axis. An analyser transmits only the
component of the linear light parallel to its transmission axis.

(d) Percentage of polarization

Consider the photocell connected to the current reading meter. If the reading is maximum then
the polarised light is parallel to the transmission axis of the polariser, and the reading is
minimum when polarised light is tangential to the transmission axis. Let IH be the current at the
parallel axis and IT be the current at the tangential axis.
I -I
The percentage of polarisation = H T
IH  IT

Consider an analyser is inserted between the polariser and the photocell having a vertical
transmission axis, as shown above. Let the transmission axis of the polariser make an angle 

19
with the vertical. The linear light transmitted by the polariser can be resolved to two
components (Eocos and Eosin), one parallel (Eocos and another one tangential (Eosin) to
the transmission direction of the analyser.
Evidently only the parallel component of amplitude Eocos will be transmitted by the analyser.
Given that intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude

Amplitude Io  E o2
But I  (Eocos
    E o2 cos2
Therefore I = Io cos2

If  =0o, this means that the axes of transmission of the analyser and the polariser are parallel,
then I = maximum.
If =90o , then I = 0 (minimum).

Methods of polarization
(i) Reflection

If an unpolarised beam of light is incident on a glass surface at an angle of about 57o, the light
that is reflected from the surface is plane polarised. This can be checked by looking through as
piece of polaroid. If the polaroid is slowly rotated about the line of vision, the intensity of the
light reaching the eye varies from some maximum value to zero.

(ii) Double refraction

If an unpolarised light is incident on a crystal of Calcite, it is split into two rays. These are
known as the ordinary ray (O-ray) and extra-ordinary ray (E-ray). Each ray is plane polarised in
a direction which is tangential to that of the other. If an object is viewed through a crystal of
Calcite, two images are seen. The phenomenon is called double refraction.

20
Sunglasses
The reflected light from a road can be reduced by using Polaroid sunglasses i.e. sunglasses
which contain suitably oriented polariser

Scattering
If a beam of unpolarised light passes through a region, which contains particles (e.g. smoke
particles) the intensity of the straight through beam is reduced as a result of scattering produced
by the particles. The light that passes straight through is unpolarised but the rest is plane
polarised to an extend which depends of the angle through which it has been scattered. Light
scattered at 90o to the direction of incidence is completely plane polarised.

HOMEWORK
1. (a) Define the following
(i) Principal axis
(ii) Principal focus
(iii) The near point
(iv) Focal length
(v) Linear magnification
(b) State the laws of reflection and refraction
(c) State briefly the position of the image when the object is placed in front of
(1) Converging lens (2) Diverging lens
(i) At infinity
(ii) At the center of curvature
(iii) Between the centre of curvature and the focal point
(iv) Between the pole and the focal point
(v) At the focal point
(d) A converging lens has a focal length of 12.0cm. Calculate the power of the lens
(e) An object is placed 10.0cm from a concave mirror and a real image of magnification
2 is formed. Calculate the focal length of the mirror.
2. (a) An object is placed 12.5cm from a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15.5cm.
Calculate the position of the image and the magnification.
(b) Repeat (a) above when a concave mirror is replaced with a convex mirror of the same
radius of curvature
(c) Explain what is meant by magnifying power of a magnifying glass. Derive the
expression for the magnifying power of a magnifying glass when the image is
(i) 25cm from the eye
(ii) at infinity
3. (a) Explain why light can be polarised but sound cannot. Describe a method by which a
plane polarised beam of light can be distinguished from a partially plane polarised
beam
(b) Describe two distinctly different methods of producing plane polarised light
4. The phenomenon of Fraunhoffer diffraction may be demonstrated by illuminating a wide
slit by a parallel beam of monochromatic light and focusing the light that passes through the
slit on a white screen. A diffraction pattern may then be observed on the screen.

21
 (i) Sketch the intensity variation in the diffraction pattern as a function of
distance across the screen.
(ii) What would happen to the intensity variation if the width of the slit
were halved

5. (a) The only practical way to produce visible interference patterns with light is , in effect,
to derive two sources from a single light source. Explain why this is so.
(b) Describe an experimental arrangement to observe interference in a wedge of air.
How would you use this to determine a value for the wavelength of the light used?
(c) A piece of wire of diameter 0.05 mm and two thin, glass strips are available to
produce the air wedge. If a total of 200 fringes are produced, what is the wavelength
of the light used.

22