0% found this document useful (0 votes)
27 views19 pages

Unit 5

The Sorensen pH scale, introduced in 1909, measures the acidity or basicity of solutions using a logarithmic scale based on hydrogen ion concentration. pH values range from 0 to 14, with lower values indicating acidity and higher values indicating basicity, and it is crucial in various fields including pharmaceuticals, biology, and food industries. pH can be determined through electrometric methods using pH meters or calorimetric methods using indicators, each with its own advantages and limitations.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
27 views19 pages

Unit 5

The Sorensen pH scale, introduced in 1909, measures the acidity or basicity of solutions using a logarithmic scale based on hydrogen ion concentration. pH values range from 0 to 14, with lower values indicating acidity and higher values indicating basicity, and it is crucial in various fields including pharmaceuticals, biology, and food industries. pH can be determined through electrometric methods using pH meters or calorimetric methods using indicators, each with its own advantages and limitations.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 19

Sorensen’s pH Scale

1. Introduction
The Sorensen pH scale was introduced by Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen in 1909 to measure
the acidity or basicity of a solution. This scale is logarithmic and determines the hydrogen ion
(H+) concentration in a solution.

2. Definition of pH
pH is defined as:

pH=−log⁡[H+]

where [H+]represents the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

✔ If [H+] increases → pH decreases → solution is more acidic.


✔ If [H+]decreases → pH increases → solution is more basic.

3. pH Scale and Its Interpretation


Sorensen’s pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with:

• Acidic solutions (pH < 7) – High H+ concentration (e.g., lemon juice, gastric juice)
• Neutral solution (pH = 7) – Equal H+ and OH− concentration (e.g., pure water)
• Basic solutions (pH > 7) – Low H+ concentration (e.g., soap, baking soda)

🖼 Diagram Suggestion:

A labeled pH scale showing acidic, neutral, and basic solutions.


(Example: A color-coded pH scale with substances like lemon juice, milk, water, and soap at
their respective pH values.)

4. Importance of Sorensen’s pH Scale


Helps in determining acidity and alkalinity of solutions.
Used in pharmaceuticals to maintain drug stability.
Essential in biological systems, as enzymes function at specific pH levels.
Crucial in chemical reactions, agriculture, and food industries.

pH Determination
pH determination is essential in pharmaceuticals, chemistry, and biological systems to
measure the acidity or alkalinity of solutions. There are two primary methods of determining
pH:

1️⃣ Electrometric Method (Using pH meter)


2️⃣ Calorimetric Method (Using indicators & color changes)

1. Electrometric Method (Using pH Meter)


This method accurately measures pH using a pH meter and an electrode system. The most
common electrode used is the glass electrode.

🛠 Principle:

✔ The pH meter measures the voltage (potential difference) generated by the hydrogen ion
activity in the solution.
✔ This potential is compared to a reference electrode, and the meter converts it into pH values.

🖼 Diagram Suggestion:

A labeled diagram of a pH meter with a glass electrode and reference electrode.

Advantages of Electrometric Method:

✔ Highly accurate and precise.


✔ Works for colorless or turbid solutions, where color indicators may fail.
✔ Suitable for weakly buffered solutions.

⚠ Limitations:

Requires calibration before use.


Expensive compared to simple indicator methods.
Needs regular maintenance of electrodes.
2. Calorimetric Method (Using Indicators & Color
Change)
In this method, pH-sensitive indicators change color depending on the hydrogen ion
concentration.

🛠 Principle:

✔ Indicators are weak acids or bases that have different colors at different pH levels.
✔ The pH is determined by matching the color of the solution with a standard pH color chart.

Examples of pH Indicators & Their Color Changes

Indicator pH Range Color in Acid Color in Base


Methyl Orange 3.1 - 4.4 Red Yellow
Methyl Red 4.4 - 6.2 Red Yellow
Bromothymol Blue 6.0 - 7.6 Yellow Blue
Phenolphthalein 8.2 - 10 Colorless Pink

🖼 Diagram Suggestion:

A color comparison chart showing different pH indicators and their color changes at
different pH values.

Advantages of Calorimetric Method:

✔ Simple, fast, and inexpensive.


✔ Useful for routine laboratory testing.
✔ Can be used without electricity.

⚠ Limitations:

Less accurate than the electrometric method.


Subjective, as color perception varies.
Not suitable for dark-colored or opaque solutions.
3. Comparison: Electrometric vs. Calorimetric Methods
Aspect Electrometric Method Calorimetric Method
Accuracy High Moderate
Equipment Needed pH meter & electrodes pH indicators & color chart
Cost Expensive Cheap
Suitability All solutions, including turbid ones Only for clear solutions
Speed Quick Quick but requires visual comparison

4. Applications of pH Determination
Pharmaceuticals: Ensuring drug stability & effectiveness.
Food Industry: Checking freshness & quality (e.g., milk, juices).
Water Quality Testing: Measuring pH of drinking & industrial water.
Biological Systems: Maintaining proper blood & enzyme pH for survival.

Applications of Buffers (Detailed


Explanation)
Buffers are solutions that resist changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added.
They play a crucial role in various fields such as pharmaceuticals, biological systems, industrial
processes, and chemical reactions. Maintaining a stable pH is essential for the effectiveness,
safety, and stability of many processes and substances.

1. Applications of Buffers in Pharmaceuticals


a) Drug Formulation & Stability

• Many drugs are unstable at extreme pH levels. Buffers help maintain the required pH
to ensure the drug remains stable and effective.
• For example, aspirin hydrolyzes into salicylic acid and acetic acid at high pH. A
buffer system prevents such degradation.
• Eye drops, injections, and liquid medications use buffers to maintain a pH that is
compatible with human tissues to prevent irritation.

b) Absorption & Bioavailability


• The human body absorbs drugs more efficiently at specific pH levels. Buffers help
optimize pH to ensure maximum absorption.
• For example, weakly acidic drugs (like aspirin) are better absorbed in the stomach
(pH 1.5-3.5), while weakly basic drugs (like morphine) are better absorbed in the
intestines (pH 6-7.4).

c) Buffering in Intravenous (IV) & Injectable Medications

• Injectable drugs must have a pH similar to blood (pH 7.4) to prevent pain, irritation, or
tissue damage.
• Example: Lidocaine (a local anesthetic) uses a buffer system to reduce pain during
injection.

d) Controlled Drug Release

• Some drugs use buffer systems in sustained-release formulations to gradually release


the drug over time instead of all at once.
• Example: Buffer-controlled insulin release in diabetes treatment.

2. Applications of Buffers in Biological Systems


a) Blood Buffer System (Maintaining pH Homeostasis)

• Human blood has a pH of 7.35-7.45, which is strictly regulated by buffer systems.


• Major blood buffers:
✔ Bicarbonate buffer (HCO₃⁻ / H₂CO₃) – Maintains pH by balancing carbon dioxide
levels.
✔ Protein buffer (Hemoglobin, Albumin, etc.) – Helps in oxygen transport and pH
balance.
✔ Phosphate buffer (H₂PO₄⁻ / HPO₄²⁻) – Works inside cells to regulate pH.

b) Buffering in the Stomach (Digestive System)

• The stomach maintains an acidic pH (1.5–3.5) due to gastric acid (HCl), which helps in
digestion.
• When excess acid is produced, antacid buffers (e.g., magnesium hydroxide) help
neutralize excess acid, preventing acidity or ulcers.

c) Buffering in the Urinary System

• The kidneys use phosphate and bicarbonate buffers to maintain pH balance and
remove acidic waste from the body.
• Urine pH regulation helps prevent kidney stones and infections.

3. Industrial Applications of Buffers


a) Buffer Solutions in Food Industry

• Many foods and beverages (soft drinks, dairy products, pickles, and jams) use buffer
systems to maintain taste, texture, and shelf life.
• Example:
✔ Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer in soft drinks prevents excessive pH changes.
✔ Citrate buffer in dairy products prevents spoilage.

b) Buffering in Cosmetics & Personal Care Products

• Shampoos, creams, lotions, and toothpaste contain buffers to maintain skin-friendly


pH levels and prevent irritation.
• Example: Most shampoos have a buffer to maintain a pH of 5-6 to prevent scalp
dryness.

c) Buffering in Textile Industry & Leather Processing

• Buffers regulate pH in fabric dyeing, tanning leather, and textile printing processes.
• Example: Ammonium acetate is used as a buffer in textile dyeing to maintain the
required pH for proper color absorption.

4. Buffering in Chemical & Laboratory Research


a) Chemical Reactions & pH Control

• Many chemical reactions require a constant pH for accurate results. Buffers stabilize pH
in laboratory experiments.
• Example: Buffer solutions are used in PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) to amplify
DNA for research and forensic analysis.

b) Buffering in Microbiology & Cell Culture

• Bacteria, yeast, and cell cultures require an optimal pH for proper growth. Buffers are
added to culture media to maintain a stable environment.
• Example: Phosphate buffer is commonly used in microbial growth media.
5. Buffered Isotonic Solutions
• In pharmaceutical formulations and medicine, isotonic buffers maintain the osmotic
balance of solutions given intravenously or as eye drops.
• Example: Saline solution (0.9% NaCl) is buffered to match the pH of blood to
prevent irritation.

Buffer Equation (Detailed Explanation)

Introduction to Buffer Equation

A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH when a small amount of acid or
base is added. The buffer equation (also known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation)
is used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution and determine how much acid or base is
required to maintain a stable pH.

1. Types of Buffer Solutions

There are two main types of buffer solutions:

1️⃣ Acidic Buffer: Maintains a pH less than 7. It consists of a weak acid and its salt
(conjugate base).

• Example: Acetic acid (CH₃COOH) + Sodium acetate (CH₃COONa)

2️⃣ Basic Buffer: Maintains a pH greater than 7. It consists of a weak base and its salt
(conjugate acid).

• Example: Ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH) + Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl)

2. Henderson-Hasselbalch Buffer Equation


T
his equation helps calculate the pH of a buffer solution:

Where:

• pH = Hydrogen ion concentration

• pKa = Negative logarithm of acid dissociation constant (Ka)

• pOH = Hydroxyl ion concentration

• pKb = Negative logarithm of base dissociation constant (Kb)

• [Salt] = Concentration of salt (conjugate base for acidic buffer, conjugate acid for
basic buffer)

• [Acid] = Concentration of weak acid

• [Base] = Concentration of weak base

3. Derivation of Buffer Equation

Derivation for Acidic Buffer:


4. Importance of Buffer Equation

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is widely used in various applications, such as:


Pharmaceutical Formulations: Helps in designing buffer systems for drug stability
and controlled drug delivery.
Blood pH Regulation: The bicarbonate buffer system in blood maintains pH at 7.35-
7.45.
Industrial Processes: Used in food processing, fermentation, and cosmetics for pH
control.
Analytical Chemistry: Helps in preparing buffer solutions for titration and pH-
sensitive reactions.

5. Example Calculations Using Buffer Equation

Example 1: pH of an Acidic Buffer

A buffer solution contains 0.2 M acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and 0.1 M sodium acetate
(CH₃COONa). The pKa of acetic acid is 4.76. Calculate the pH.

Example 2: pH of a Basic Buffer

A buffer solution contains 0.3 M NH₄OH (Ammonium hydroxide) and 0.2 M NH₄Cl
(Ammonium chloride). The pKb of NH₄OH is 4.75. Calculate the pH.
6. Factors Affecting Buffer Capacity

1️⃣ Concentration of Buffer Components: Higher concentrations provide greater buffer


capacity.
2️⃣ Ratio of Salt to Acid/Base: The closer the ratio is to 1, the better the buffer resists pH
changes.
3️⃣ Dilution: Diluting a buffer solution reduces its effectiveness.
4️⃣ Temperature: Buffers can become less effective at extreme temperatures.

Buffer Capacity & Buffers in


Pharmaceutical and Biological Systems
1. Buffer Capacity
Definition:

Buffer capacity (β) is the ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH when an acid (H⁺)
or base (OH⁻) is added.

Where:

• β = Buffer capacity
• dB = Small amount of strong acid or base added (in moles per liter)
• d(pH) = Change in pH due to the added acid or base

Importance of Buffer Capacity:

Prevents drastic pH changes in pharmaceutical formulations and biological fluids.


Ensures stability of drug formulations over time.
Maintains proper enzymatic function in the body.

Factors Affecting Buffer Capacity

1️⃣ Concentration of Buffer Components:

• Higher concentrations of weak acid & conjugate base or weak base & conjugate acid
increase buffer capacity.

2️⃣ Ratio of Acid to Base:

• Best buffer capacity occurs when [Salt] ≈ [Acid], meaning pH ≈ pKa.

3️⃣ Total Buffer Strength:

• Stronger buffers resist pH changes better.


4️⃣ Temperature:

• Buffers can become less effective at extreme temperatures.

Calculation of Buffer Capacity

To find the buffer capacity of an acidic buffer:

Where:

• Ka = Acid dissociation constant


• Kb = Base dissociation constant
• C = Total buffer concentration

Example:

A buffer solution contains 0.2 M acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and 0.2 M sodium acetate
(CH₃COONa). The Ka of acetic acid is 1.75 × 10⁻⁵. Calculate the buffer capacity if 0.01 moles
of HCl are added to 1L of this buffer.
Solving this equation will give the buffer capacity, showing how much acid can be added before
a significant pH change occurs.

2. Buffers in Pharmaceutical Systems


Pharmaceutical buffers are used in drug formulations to:
Maintain drug stability by preventing pH changes.
Enhance solubility of weakly acidic and basic drugs.
Improve drug absorption in the body by maintaining the required pH.
Prevent degradation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs).

Examples of Buffers in Pharmaceuticals

Buffer System Application


Acetate Buffer (CH₃COOH +
Used in liquid drug formulations to maintain pH.
CH₃COONa)
Used in injectable drugs and ophthalmic
Phosphate Buffer (NaH₂PO₄ + Na₂HPO₄)
solutions.
Citrate Buffer (C₆H₈O₇ + C₆H₅O₇³⁻) Used in blood storage solutions.
Borate Buffer (H₃BO₃ + Na₂B₄O₇) Used in eye drops to prevent irritation.
Carbonate Buffer (H₂CO₃ + HCO₃⁻) Used in IV fluids for maintaining blood pH.

Suggested Image:

A table showing different pharmaceutical buffers and their applications.

3. Buffers in Biological Systems


Importance of Buffers in the Body

Helps maintain pH homeostasis in blood and tissues.


Ensures optimal enzyme activity by keeping pH stable.
Regulates acid-base balance in biological fluids.

Major Buffer Systems in the Human Body


Buffer System Function pH Range
Bicarbonate Buffer (H₂CO₃ / HCO₃⁻) Maintains blood pH 7.35 - 7.45
Phosphate Buffer (H₂PO₄⁻ / HPO₄²⁻) Regulates cellular pH 6.8 - 7.2
Protein Buffer (Hemoglobin, Albumin) Controls pH in blood plasma 7.4
Ammonia Buffer (NH₃ / NH₄⁺) Helps in kidney function 7.4

Example: Bicarbonate Buffer System in Blood

H2CO3⇌H++HCO3−H₂CO

• If pH drops (acidic), HCO₃⁻ binds to H⁺ to form H₂CO₃, reducing acidity.


• If pH rises (basic), H₂CO₃ dissociates to release H⁺, lowering pH.

Suggested Image:

A diagram of the bicarbonate buffer system in blood showing CO₂ exchange with the lungs.

4. Role of Buffers in Medical Applications


Blood pH Regulation: Prevents acidosis (<7.35) and alkalosis (>7.45).
IV Fluids: Maintain correct pH balance for drug delivery.
Urine Buffering: Helps kidneys remove excess H⁺ ions.
Eye Drops: Prevents irritation by keeping pH close to 7.4.
Antacids: Use buffers to neutralize stomach acid.

Buffered Isotonic Solutions – A Detailed Explanation

Introduction

Buffered isotonic solutions are special liquid formulations that maintain both pH stability
and osmotic balance. They are widely used in pharmaceutical and biological applications
to ensure drug stability, compatibility with body fluids, and patient safety.

A buffered isotonic solution combines:

• A buffer system that resists pH changes.

• A tonicity agent that maintains osmotic pressure, preventing cell shrinkage


(hypertonicity) or swelling (hypotonicity).
These solutions are commonly used in ophthalmic (eye drops), parenteral (injections),
and intravenous (IV) formulations to avoid irritation and damage to tissues.

Understanding the Concept of Isotonicity

Osmotic pressure is the force exerted by a solution to draw water across a semipermeable
membrane.
A solution can be:

Isotonic: Has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids, preventing water movement
in or out of cells.
Hypertonic: Has a higher osmotic pressure than body fluids, causing cells to shrink
due to water loss.
Hypotonic: Has a lower osmotic pressure than body fluids, causing cells to swell and
burst due to water gain.

Example:

• Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) is an isotonic solution used in IV fluids.

• 5% NaCl is hypertonic, pulling water out of cells.

• 0.45% NaCl is hypotonic, pushing water into cells.

Image Suggestion: Diagram showing *RBCs in isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic


solutions.

Importance of Buffering in Isotonic Solutions

A buffer system ensures that the solution maintains a stable pH despite external
influences (e.g., dilution, temperature changes).

Why is buffering important?


Prevents irritation: For eye drops, injections, and IV fluids, pH changes can cause
burning or stinging.
Ensures drug stability: Many drugs degrade if the pH changes significantly.
Enhances drug absorption: Certain drugs require a specific pH for optimal
bioavailability.

Example:
• Lidocaine (local anesthetic) requires a buffered isotonic solution to reduce pain
upon injection.

• Ophthalmic drops (artificial tears) use buffers to match tear pH (7.4) and prevent
discomfort.

Image Suggestion: Graph showing *pH stability of buffered vs. non-buffered solutions
over time.

Preparation of Buffered Isotonic Solutions

Buffered isotonic solutions are prepared using:


1️⃣ Buffering Agents: Maintain a stable pH.
2️⃣ Isotonicity Agents: Maintain osmotic balance.
3️⃣ Solvents: Usually water for injection (WFI) or sterile water.

1. Buffering Agents

• Phosphate Buffer (pH 7.4️) – Used in IV fluids, eye drops.

• Borate Buffer (pH 7-8) – Used in ophthalmic solutions.

• Citrate Buffer (pH 3️-6) – Used in vaccines and blood products.

• Acetate Buffer (pH 4️-5) – Used in antibiotic formulations.

2. Isotonicity Adjusting Agents

• Sodium chloride (NaCl, 0.9%)

• Dextrose (5%)

• Mannitol or Sorbitol – Used in special injections.

Image Suggestion: Table comparing *common buffers, pH ranges, and their


pharmaceutical applications.

Applications of Buffered Isotonic Solutions

1. Ophthalmic Solutions (Eye Drops)


Importance: Must be isotonic with tears (pH ~7.4) to avoid eye irritation.
Examples: Artificial tears, antibiotic eye drops, contact lens solutions.
Common buffers: Borate buffer, phosphate buffer.

2. Parenteral Solutions (IV Fluids & Injections)

Importance: Prevents blood cell damage (hemolysis) & ensures safe drug delivery.
Examples:

• Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) – Used for rehydration.

• Buffered lidocaine injections – Reduce injection pain.

• Insulin preparations – Require pH stability for long-term storage.

3. Biopharmaceutical Formulations (Protein & Enzyme-based Drugs)

Importance: Protects protein structure & enhances stability.


Examples:

• Vaccines (e.g., mRNA COVID-1️9 vaccines use buffers).

• Biologic drugs (e.g., monoclonal antibodies).

• Blood plasma storage solutions.

4. Nasal & Pulmonary Drug Delivery (Inhalers & Sprays)

Importance: Ensures lung & nasal absorption without irritation.


Examples:

• Asthma inhalers.

• Nasal decongestant sprays.

• COVID-19 nasal vaccines.

Image Suggestion: Flowchart showing *applications of buffered isotonic solutions in


different pharmaceutical fields.

Key Considerations for Formulating Buffered Isotonic Solutions

pH Selection: Should match body fluids (e.g., blood, tears, nasal secretions).
Buffer Strength: Must be strong enough to resist pH changes, but weak enough to
allow drug absorption.
Osmolarity: Should be 300 mOsm/L (same as blood plasma).
Sterility: Essential for injectables, eye drops, and nasal sprays.

Image Suggestion: Table showing *pH & osmolarity of different body fluids compared to
buffered isotonic solutions.

You might also like