Unit 5
Unit 5
1. Introduction
The Sorensen pH scale was introduced by Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen in 1909 to measure
the acidity or basicity of a solution. This scale is logarithmic and determines the hydrogen ion
(H+) concentration in a solution.
2. Definition of pH
pH is defined as:
pH=−log[H+]
• Acidic solutions (pH < 7) – High H+ concentration (e.g., lemon juice, gastric juice)
• Neutral solution (pH = 7) – Equal H+ and OH− concentration (e.g., pure water)
• Basic solutions (pH > 7) – Low H+ concentration (e.g., soap, baking soda)
🖼 Diagram Suggestion:
pH Determination
pH determination is essential in pharmaceuticals, chemistry, and biological systems to
measure the acidity or alkalinity of solutions. There are two primary methods of determining
pH:
🛠 Principle:
✔ The pH meter measures the voltage (potential difference) generated by the hydrogen ion
activity in the solution.
✔ This potential is compared to a reference electrode, and the meter converts it into pH values.
🖼 Diagram Suggestion:
⚠ Limitations:
🛠 Principle:
✔ Indicators are weak acids or bases that have different colors at different pH levels.
✔ The pH is determined by matching the color of the solution with a standard pH color chart.
🖼 Diagram Suggestion:
A color comparison chart showing different pH indicators and their color changes at
different pH values.
⚠ Limitations:
4. Applications of pH Determination
Pharmaceuticals: Ensuring drug stability & effectiveness.
Food Industry: Checking freshness & quality (e.g., milk, juices).
Water Quality Testing: Measuring pH of drinking & industrial water.
Biological Systems: Maintaining proper blood & enzyme pH for survival.
• Many drugs are unstable at extreme pH levels. Buffers help maintain the required pH
to ensure the drug remains stable and effective.
• For example, aspirin hydrolyzes into salicylic acid and acetic acid at high pH. A
buffer system prevents such degradation.
• Eye drops, injections, and liquid medications use buffers to maintain a pH that is
compatible with human tissues to prevent irritation.
• Injectable drugs must have a pH similar to blood (pH 7.4) to prevent pain, irritation, or
tissue damage.
• Example: Lidocaine (a local anesthetic) uses a buffer system to reduce pain during
injection.
• The stomach maintains an acidic pH (1.5–3.5) due to gastric acid (HCl), which helps in
digestion.
• When excess acid is produced, antacid buffers (e.g., magnesium hydroxide) help
neutralize excess acid, preventing acidity or ulcers.
• The kidneys use phosphate and bicarbonate buffers to maintain pH balance and
remove acidic waste from the body.
• Urine pH regulation helps prevent kidney stones and infections.
• Many foods and beverages (soft drinks, dairy products, pickles, and jams) use buffer
systems to maintain taste, texture, and shelf life.
• Example:
✔ Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer in soft drinks prevents excessive pH changes.
✔ Citrate buffer in dairy products prevents spoilage.
• Buffers regulate pH in fabric dyeing, tanning leather, and textile printing processes.
• Example: Ammonium acetate is used as a buffer in textile dyeing to maintain the
required pH for proper color absorption.
• Many chemical reactions require a constant pH for accurate results. Buffers stabilize pH
in laboratory experiments.
• Example: Buffer solutions are used in PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) to amplify
DNA for research and forensic analysis.
• Bacteria, yeast, and cell cultures require an optimal pH for proper growth. Buffers are
added to culture media to maintain a stable environment.
• Example: Phosphate buffer is commonly used in microbial growth media.
5. Buffered Isotonic Solutions
• In pharmaceutical formulations and medicine, isotonic buffers maintain the osmotic
balance of solutions given intravenously or as eye drops.
• Example: Saline solution (0.9% NaCl) is buffered to match the pH of blood to
prevent irritation.
A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH when a small amount of acid or
base is added. The buffer equation (also known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation)
is used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution and determine how much acid or base is
required to maintain a stable pH.
1️⃣ Acidic Buffer: Maintains a pH less than 7. It consists of a weak acid and its salt
(conjugate base).
2️⃣ Basic Buffer: Maintains a pH greater than 7. It consists of a weak base and its salt
(conjugate acid).
Where:
• [Salt] = Concentration of salt (conjugate base for acidic buffer, conjugate acid for
basic buffer)
A buffer solution contains 0.2 M acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and 0.1 M sodium acetate
(CH₃COONa). The pKa of acetic acid is 4.76. Calculate the pH.
A buffer solution contains 0.3 M NH₄OH (Ammonium hydroxide) and 0.2 M NH₄Cl
(Ammonium chloride). The pKb of NH₄OH is 4.75. Calculate the pH.
6. Factors Affecting Buffer Capacity
Buffer capacity (β) is the ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH when an acid (H⁺)
or base (OH⁻) is added.
Where:
• β = Buffer capacity
• dB = Small amount of strong acid or base added (in moles per liter)
• d(pH) = Change in pH due to the added acid or base
• Higher concentrations of weak acid & conjugate base or weak base & conjugate acid
increase buffer capacity.
Where:
Example:
A buffer solution contains 0.2 M acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and 0.2 M sodium acetate
(CH₃COONa). The Ka of acetic acid is 1.75 × 10⁻⁵. Calculate the buffer capacity if 0.01 moles
of HCl are added to 1L of this buffer.
Solving this equation will give the buffer capacity, showing how much acid can be added before
a significant pH change occurs.
Suggested Image:
H2CO3⇌H++HCO3−H₂CO
Suggested Image:
A diagram of the bicarbonate buffer system in blood showing CO₂ exchange with the lungs.
Introduction
Buffered isotonic solutions are special liquid formulations that maintain both pH stability
and osmotic balance. They are widely used in pharmaceutical and biological applications
to ensure drug stability, compatibility with body fluids, and patient safety.
Osmotic pressure is the force exerted by a solution to draw water across a semipermeable
membrane.
A solution can be:
Isotonic: Has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids, preventing water movement
in or out of cells.
Hypertonic: Has a higher osmotic pressure than body fluids, causing cells to shrink
due to water loss.
Hypotonic: Has a lower osmotic pressure than body fluids, causing cells to swell and
burst due to water gain.
Example:
A buffer system ensures that the solution maintains a stable pH despite external
influences (e.g., dilution, temperature changes).
Example:
• Lidocaine (local anesthetic) requires a buffered isotonic solution to reduce pain
upon injection.
• Ophthalmic drops (artificial tears) use buffers to match tear pH (7.4) and prevent
discomfort.
Image Suggestion: Graph showing *pH stability of buffered vs. non-buffered solutions
over time.
1. Buffering Agents
• Dextrose (5%)
Importance: Prevents blood cell damage (hemolysis) & ensures safe drug delivery.
Examples:
• Asthma inhalers.
pH Selection: Should match body fluids (e.g., blood, tears, nasal secretions).
Buffer Strength: Must be strong enough to resist pH changes, but weak enough to
allow drug absorption.
Osmolarity: Should be 300 mOsm/L (same as blood plasma).
Sterility: Essential for injectables, eye drops, and nasal sprays.
Image Suggestion: Table showing *pH & osmolarity of different body fluids compared to
buffered isotonic solutions.