Experiment # 9 Date:

Name of the Experiment:

To study the frequency response characteristics of RC high pass, low pass, band pass and T-
filters.

Theory:
A suitable arrangement of resistors and capacitors, either in series or parallel, can separate a mixture of voltages or
currents of widely different frequencies. Such an arrangement is called a filter circuit i.e. circuit in which currents
of unwanted frequencies are not allowed to pass.

RC High Pass Filter:

An elementary but very useful circuit employs a resistance and a
capacitance connected in series. This is connected to a source of
sinusoidal voltage. When the output voltage is taken across the resistor as
shown in the figure, the circuit is referred to as an RC high pass filter.
1
Total impedance of the circuit is Z = R +
jC
where  is the input angular frequency.

The current in the circuit is given by

vin
i =
1
R+
jC

where vin is the input voltage.

Hence the output voltage taken across the resistor is given by
vin
vout = R
1
R+
jC

The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is called gain and is given by
vout R 1
A = = =
vin 1 1
R+ 1+
jC jRC
1
or A2 = AA* =
1
1+
 R2C2
2

Hence the magnitude or the modulus of gain is

1
A =
 1 +  R1 C 
2 2 2
 1
Let , = 0 = 2f0 ……… (i)
RC
1
Then , A = … … … (ii)
 1 +  
2
0
2

From Eq. (ii) it is evident that

 As   0, magnitude of the gain A approaches zero
 A increases with increasing 
 As   , A approaches unity
When  = 0 = 2f0, then according to Eq. (ii)
1
A = = 0.707
2
The frequency f0 is referred to as the lower cut-off frequency and is given from Eq. (i) as
1
f0 = … … … (iii)
2RC

RC Low Pass Filter:

When the output voltage is taken across the capacitor as shown in the
figure on the right, the circuit is referred to as an RC low pass filter.
The current in the circuit is given by
vin
i =
1
R+
jC

where vin is the input voltage.

Hence the output voltage taken across the capacitor is given by

vin 1 vin
vout =  =
1 jC 1 + jRC
R+
jC

The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is called gain and is given by
vout 1
A = =
vin 1 + jRC
1
or A2 = AA* =
1 + 2R2C2
Hence the magnitude or the modulus of gain is
1
A =
 (1 + 2R2C2)

1
Let = 0 = 2f0 ……… (iv)
RC
 1
Then, A = ……… (v)
 1 +  2
2

 0 

From Eq. (v) it is evident that

 As   0, magnitude of the gain A approaches unity
 A decreases with increasing 
 As   , A approaches zero

When  = 0 = 2f0, then according to Eq. (iv)

1
A = = 0.707
2
The frequency f0 is referred to as the higher cut-off frequency and is given from Eq. (i) as
1
f0 = … … … (vi)
2RC

Band pass Filter:

Band pass filter circuit is a series and parallel combination of
resistors and capacitors as shown in the figure. The output is
measured across the tank circuit, which is the parallel combination
of R and C.
The impedance of the tank circuit is
RXC 1
Zt = , where XC =
R + XC jC
The total impedance of the band pass circuit is given by
RXC (R + XC)2 + RXC
Z = R + XC + Zt = R + XC + =
R + XC R + XC

Hence the output voltage taken across the tank circuit is given by
vin vin
vout =  Zt =
Z 1 + jRC
Gain is given by
vout Zt RXC
A = = =
vin Z (R + XC)2 + RXC

RXC 1
or, A = =
3RXC + R2 + XC2 R XC
3+ +
XC R
 1 1
or, A = , since XC =
3 + j RC 
1  jC
 RC

1
Now , A2 = AA* =
9 + RC 
1 2
 RC

1
Putting = 0 = 2f0, the magnitude or the modulus of gain is
RC
1
A = ……… (vii)
 9 +    0 2
 0   

From Eq. (vii) it is evident that

 As   0, magnitude of the gain A approaches zero.
 A becomes maximum when  = 0 = 2f0 and the maximum value is
1
Amax = = 0.33
3
f0 is called the center frequency.
 As   , A approaches zero

The normalized gain is

A 1
=
Amax
 1 +    0 2
1
 9 0   
1
The above equation gives that A will be 2 times its maximum value when the quantity inside the square root on
the right side of the equation is 2, which means
1   0
 = 1
3 0  

f f0
or  = 3
f0 f
Simplifying the above equation we get
f2  3ff0  f02 = 0
Treating separately for the “plus” sign and the “minus” sign with the second term on the left side, we will reach
the following two possible values of the frequency:
1
fu = f (13 + 3) > f0
2 0
1
fl= f (13  3) < f0
2 0
fu and fl are respectively referred to as upper cut-off frequency and lower cut-off frequency.
The difference (fu  fl), which is the difference between the two frequencies (on either side of the center
1
frequency) at which the magnitude of gain reduces to 2 times its maximum value, is called the band pass. Then
we have
Band pass = fu  fl = 3f0

Twin T-filter:
The following is the circuit diagram of a twin T-filter.

In the above diagram, the current passing through the various branches of the circuit can determined from
Kirchhoff’s loop rule. Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop abfeda gives

i1 jC + i3 2 (R)  i (R)  (i + i  i ) 2jC

1 1
= 0
  2 2 1 3

1
Putting jC = XC, and then simplifying we get

i2 (2R + XC)  i3 (R + XC) = i1 XC ……… (viii)

Again applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop bcdefb yields

(i1  i3) (XC  R) + (i2 + i1  i3) (X2 )  i (R2)

C
3 = 0

which gives on simplification

i2 (XC)  3i3 (R + XC) = i1 (2R + 3XC) … … … (ix)
Eqs. (viii) and (ix) can simultaneously be solved for i2 and i3 by applying determinant method. On solving we
obtain,
R + 3XC
i2 =
3R + XC
2 (R + XC)
i3 =
3R + XC
Now vin = Potential drop across abf

= i1 (XC) + i3 2(R)
XC2 + R2 + 4XCR
or vin = i1 … … … (x)
XC + 3R

And vout = Potential drop across cbf

=  (i1  i3) (XC) + i3 2 (R)

X C2 + R2
or vout = i ……… (xi)
XC + 3R 1
The complex gain A is obtained by dividing Eq. (xi) by Eq. (x).
vout X C2 + R2
A = =
vin XC + R2 + 4RXC
2

R2
1+
X C2
=
R2 4R
1+ 2+
XC XC
1
Now putting XC = jC we obtain

1  2R2C2 1  2
A = = ; [  = RC]
1   R C + 4jRC
2 2 2
1  2 + 4j

1  2 
Then A =  (AA*) =
 ((1  2)2 + 162)
1
or A = ……… (xii)
 1 + (116
2

 ) 
2 2

From Eq. (xii) it is evident that

 If   0, then   0 and the magnitude of the gain A approaches unity.
 When  = 1 i.e.  = 1/RC, A takes its minimum value 0.
 When   , then    and A approaches unity.

1
The above equation gives that A will be equal to when the quantity inside the square root on the right side of
2
the equation is 2, which means
4
= 1
1  2
Simplifying the above equation we get
2  4  1 = 0
Treating separately for the “plus” sign and the “minus” sign with the second term on the left side, we will obtain
the following two possible values of :
 = 5  2
and  = 5 + 2
1
Thus we have two frequencies at which the magnitude of gain reduces to 2 . These are

5 + 2
fu =
2RC
5  2
fl=
2RC
fu and fl are respectively referred to as upper cut-off frequency and lower cut-off frequency.
The difference (fu  fl) is called the band stop. Then we have
2
Band stop = fu  fl =
RC

Apparatus:

 Capacitors
 Resistors
 Signal Generator
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 Connecting Cords
Table: 01: Table for high pass and low pass.
For high Pass For low pass
-3
10 Input
Frequency Inf voltage, V1 Output Output
Gain = Gain =
F (Hz) (Volt) voltage, Vo voltage, Vo
Vo / V1 Vo / V1
(Volt) (Volt)

50 3.91 .2 .02 10 1
100 4.60 .35 .035 10 1
200 5.29 .65 .065 10 1
500 6.21 1.62 .162 10 1
1000 6.91 4.8 .48 9.75 .975
2000 7.60 5.4 .54 8.5 .85
3000 8.00 6.8 .68 7 .7
4000 8.29 8 .8 6.25 .625
5000 8.51 8.5 .85 5.5 .55
6000 8.70 8.75 .875 4.75 .475
7000 8.85 10 9 .9 4 .4
8000 8.98 9.25 .925 3.6 .36
9000 9.10 9.5 .95 3.4 .34
10000 9.21 9.5 .95 3 .3
15000 9.61 9.5 .95 2.1 .21
20000 9.90 9.5 .95 1.6 .16
25000 10.12 10 1 1.2 .12
30000 10.31 10 1 1.05 .105
40000 10.60 10 1 .8 .08
50000 10.82 10 1 .65 .065
60000 11.00 10 1 .525 .052
70000 11.15 10 1 .44 .044
80000 11.29 10 1 .4 .04
90000 11.40 10 1 .35 .035
100000 11.51 10 1 .32 .032
Table: 02: Table for band pass and T filter.
For band Pass For T filter
3 Input
Frequency Output Output
Inf voltage, V1 Gain = Gain =
F (Hz) voltage, Vo voltage, Vo
(Volt) Vo / V1 Vo / V1
(Volt) (Volt)

50 3.91 .1 .01 10 1
100 4.60 .2 .02 10 1
200 5.29 .38 .038 9.5 .95
500 6.21 .95 .095 9 .9
1000 6.91 1.65 .165 7.5 .75
2000 7.60 2.6 .26 4.2 .42
3000 8.00 3.0 .3 2.2 .22
4000 8.29 3.0 .3 .7 .07
5000 8.51 3.0 .3 .56 .056
6000 8.70 3.1 .31 .58 .058
7000 8.85 10 3.05 .30 2.25 .022
8000 8.98 3.0 .3 2.9 .29
9000 9.10 2.9 .29 3.4 .34
10000 9.21 2.7 .27 3.9 .39
15000 9.61 2.3 .23 5.6 .56
20000 9.90 2.0 .2 7 .7
25000 10.12 1.6 .16 7.8 .78
30000 10.31 1.4 .14 8.4 .84
40000 10.60 1.05 .105 8.8 .88
50000 10.82 .85 .085 9 .9
60000 11.00 .7 .07 9.4 .94
70000 11.15 .6 .06 9.5 .95
80000 11.29 .54 .054 9.5 .95
90000 11.40 .5 .05 9.5 .95
100000 11.51 .44 .044 9.5 .95
.95
Calculation:

1. For high pass filter :

ln f1 = 8.05 , f2 = 0

f1 = 3133.79

Band width = f1 – f2 =3133.79 – 0 =3133.79

2. For low pass filter :

ln f2 = 8 , f1 = 0

f2 = 2980.95

Band width = f2 –f1 =2980.95 - 0 = 2980.95

3. For band pass filter :

ln f1=7.4 ln f2=9.7

f1=1635.98 f2=16317.6

Band width = f2 –f1 = 16317.6 – 1635.98 = 14681.62

4. For twin T- filter :

ln f1=7.05 ln f2=9.95

f1=1152.85 f2=20952.2

Band Stop = f2 –f1 = 19799.3

Discussion :

In the total experiment one circuit was used in different ways. For low pass filter the output was taken
across the capacitor and for high pass filter the output was taken across the resistance. In fact the nature and shape
which we know from theory, have satisfied by experimental graph. The oscilloscope was leveled with great care.
Before super position the voltage always found on the screen.

In the RC filter, the oscilloscope was accept at such a level that amplitude was quite large. The
multiplication was used to enlarge the amplitude when needed, so that it was measured accurately. The functions
in the amplitude sometimes become too much prominent that the amplitudes were taken as the average two or
three readings.

The cut off frequency from theoretically and experimentally does co-inside with each other. Which
certainly specify the accuracy of this experiment.

We have taken the frequency reading from dial reading. We should have calibrate the frequency dial at
first. For better reading we have sometimes use the single channel instead of double channel, because the reading
can be effected by the parallax error.