AN EDUSAT LECTURE ON

1
 B
CURVES
Curves are regular
T2
bends provided in T1

the lines of A
C
communication like
roads, railways and
canals etc. to bring
about gradual O
Fig. 1 . A CURVE
change of direction.

2
• Those curves that change the alignment or direction
are known as horizontal curves, (changes made in
horizontal plane) and those that change the slope are
vertical curves (Bridges and flyovers) made in vertical
plane.

Horizontal Curve
Plan View

Vertical Curve

Profile View
 HORIZONTAL CURVES
Curves provided in the horizontal plane to have
the gradual change in direction are known as
horizontal curves.
VERTICAL CURVES
Curves provided in the vertical plane to obtain
the gradual change in grade are called as
vertical curves.

4
NEED OF PROVIDING CURVES

Curves are needed on Highways, railways

and canals for bringing about gradual change
of direction of motion. They are provided for
following reasons:-
i) To bring about gradual change in
direction of motion.
ii) To bring about gradual change in grade
and for good visibility.

5
CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCULAR CURVES
Circular curves are classified as :

(i) Simple Curves.

(ii) Compound Curves.

(iii) Serpentine Curves.

(iv) Deviation Curves.

6
 B
i) Simple Curve:
T2
A simple curve T1

Consists of a A C
single arc of R R
circle connecting
two straights. It
has radius of the O

same magnitude Fig. 3. A SIMPLE CURVE

throughout.

7
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

• 1.SIMPLE: The simple curve is an arc of a circle. The

radius of the circle determines the “sharpness” or
“flatness” of the curve. The larger the radius, the
“flatter” the curve.
ii) COMPOUND CURVE
M P N

T1

R1
O1
R2
Fig.4 Compound Curve
A
C
O2

A compound Curve consists of two or

more simple curves having different radii
bending in the same direction and lying on
the same side of the common tangent. Their
centres lie on the same side of the curve.

9
2. COMPOUND. Frequently, the terrain will require the use of the compound curve. This
curve normally consists of two simple curves joined together and curving in the same
direction but with different radius with their centres of curvature on the same side of the
common tangent.
 iii) REVERSE OR SERPENTINE CURVE
A reverse or serpentine curve is
made up of two arcs having equal
B
or different radii bending in O2 R 2
opposite direction with a common T2
tangent at their junction . R 2

Their centres lie on M p N

opposite sides of the curve. T1

Reverse curves are used R 1

when the straights are A R 1

parallel or intersect at a O1
very small angle. Fig. 5. A Reverse or Serpentine Curve.

11
3. REVERSE. A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but
curving in opposite direction with their centres on the opposite side of a common
tangent. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be avoided when possible.
O1 O3
iv) DEVIATION CURVE
A deviation curve is
simply a combination
of two reverse curves.
it is used when it
Building becomes necessary to
T1 T2
deviate from a given
straight path in order
O2 to avoid intervening
Fig. 7 A Deviation Curve obstructions such as
bend of river, a
building , etc.
13
4. SPIRAL. The spiral is a curve that has a varying radius. It is used on railroads and
most modem highways. Its purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a
simple curve or between simple curves in a compound curve.
BACK TANGENT: Tangent from
which the curve starts

FORWARD TANGENT: Tangent

on which the curve ends.

POINT OF INTERSECTION (PI).

The point of intersection is the
point where the back and forward
tangents intersect. Sometimes,
the point of intersection is
designated as V (vertex).

INTERSECTING ANGLE (I). The

intersecting angle is the deflection
angle at the PI. Its value is either
computed from the preliminary
traverse angles or measured in
the field.
CENTRAL ANGLE (Δ). The
central angle is the angle formed
by two radii drawn from the center
of the circle (O) to the PC and PT.
The value of the central angle is
equal to the I angle. Some
authorities call both the
intersecting angle and central
angle either I or A.

RADIUS. The radius of the circle

of which the curve is an arc, or
segment. The radius is always
perpendicular to back and forward
tangents.

POINT OF CURVATURE(PC).
The point of curvature is the point
on the back tangent where the
circular curve begins. It is
sometimes designated as BC
POINT OF TANGENCY(PT). The
point of tangency is the point on the
forward tangent where the curve
ends. It is sometimes designated as
EC (end of curve) or CT (curve to
tangent).

POINT OF CURVE(POC) . The point

of curve is any point along the curve.

MOC: Mid point of curve

LENGTH OF CURVE(L): . The length

of curve is the distance from the PC
to the PT, measured along the curve.

LENGTH OF CURVE(L):The
distance along the curved center line
from PC to PT
TANGENT DISTANCE(T). The
tangent distance is the distance along
the tangents from the PI to the PC or
the PT. These distances are equal on
a simple curve.

LONG CHORD(LC) . The long chord

is the straight-line distance from the
PC to the PT.

EXTERNAL DISTANCE (E). The

external distance (also called the
external secant) is the distance from
the PI to the midpoint of the curve.
The external distance bisects the
interior angle at the PI.

MIDDLE ORDINATE(M). The middle

ordinate is the distance from the
midpoint of the curve to the midpoint
of the long chord. The extension of
the middle ordinate bisects the central
angle.
DEGREE OF CURVE(D). The degree of curve defines the sharpness or
flatness of the curve.

RIGHT HAND CURVE: If the curve deflects to the right of the direction of
the progress of the route.

LEFT HAND CURVE: If the curve deflects to the left of the direction of
the progress of the route.
 Layout of a Simple Horizontal Curve
R = Radius of Circular Curve
BC = Beginning of Curve
(or PC = Point of Curvature)
EC = End of Curve
(or PT = Point of Tangency)
PI = Point of Intersection
T = Tangent Length
(T = PI – BC = EC - PI)
L = Length of Curvature
(L = EC – BC)
M = Middle Ordinate
E = External Distance
C = Chord Length
Δ = Deflection Angle
ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE CURVE
ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE CURVE
DESIGNATION OF CURVE
A curve may be designated either by
the radius or by the angle subtended at the
centre by a chord of particular length.
In India, a curve is designated by the
angle (in degrees) subtended at the centre by a
chord of 30 metres (100 ft.) length. This angle
is called the degree of curve (D).
The degree of the curve indicates the
sharpness of the curve.

24
DESIGNATION OF CURVES.

In English practice , a curve is defined

by the radius of the curve in terms of chains,
such as a six chain curve means a curve having
radius equal to six full chains, chain being 30
metres unless otherwise specified.
In America,Canada,India and some
other countries a curve is designated by the
degree of the curve. For example a 40 curve
means a curve having angle of 90 degrees at the
centre subtended by a chord of 30m length
unless otherwise specified.
25
RELATION between the Radius of curve and
Degree of Curve.
The relation between the radius M P N
and the degree of the curve may
be determined as follows:-
D
R R
Let R = the radius of the curve in metres. D/2
D= the degree of the curve.
MN = the chord, 30m long.
P= the mid-point of the chord. O
Fig.9 Degree of Curve
In OMP,OM=R,
MP= ½ MN =15m
MOP=D/2
Then, sin D/2=MP/OM= 15/R
PTO
26
RELATION between the Radius of curve and
Degree of Curve.
Then,sin D/2=MP/OM= 15/R M P N
Or R = 15 (Exact)
sin D/2
But when D is small, sin D/2 may be D
R R
assumed approximately equal to
D/2
D/2 in radians.
Therefore:
R = 15 X 360 O
πD Fig. 10 Degree of Curve
= 1718.87
D
R = 1719  This relation holds good up to 5
0
Or say ,
D curves.For higher degree curves the
(Approximate) exact relation should be used.
27
METHODS OF CURVE RANGING
A curve may be set out
(1) By linear Methods, where chain and tape
are used or
(2) By Angular or instrumental methods,
where a theodolite with or without a chain is
used.
Before starting setting out a curve by any
method, the exact positions of the tangents
points between which the curve lies ,must be
determined. Following procedure is adopted:-

28
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure :-
i) After fixing the directions of the straights,
produce them to meet in point (B)
ii) Set up the Theodolite at the intersection
point (B) and measure the angle of
intersection (I) .Then find the deflection
angle ( φ ) by subtracting (I) from 1800 i.e
φ=1800 – I.
iii) Calculate the tangent length from the
following equation
Tangent length = R tanφ/2
29
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure :-

iv) Measure the tangent length (BT1)

backward along the rear tangent BA from
the intersection point B, thus locating the
position of T1.

vi) Similarly, locate the position of T2 by

measuring the same distance forward
along the forward tangent BC from B.

30
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd…) :-
After locating the positions of the tangent
points T1 and T2 ,their chainages may be
determined. The chainage of T1 is obtained by
subtracting the tangent length from the known
chainage of the intersection point B. And the
chainage of T2 is found by adding the length
of curve to the chainage of T1.
Then the pegs are fixed at equal intervals
on the curve.The interval between pegs is
usually 30m or one chain length. ……...............
31
 METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd…) :-
This distance should actually be measured along
the arc ,but in practice it is measured along
the chord ,as the difference between the chord
and the corresponding arc is small and hence
negligible. In order that this difference is
always small and negligible ,the length of the
chord should not be more than 1/20th of the
radius of the curve. The curve is then obtained
by joining all these pegs. ……...............

32
METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd…) :-
The distances along the centre line of the
curve are continuously measured from the
point of beginning of the line up to the end .i.e
the pegs along the centre line of the work
should be at equal interval from the beginning
of the line up to the end. There should be no
break in the regularity of their spacing in
passing from a tangent to a curve or from a
curve to the tangent. For this reason ,the first
peg on the curve is fixed ….
33
 METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CURVE
Procedure (contd…) :-
… at such a distance from the first tangent point
(T1) that its chainage becomes the whole
number of chains i.e the whole number of peg
interval. The length of the first sub chord is
thus less than the peg interval and it is called a
sub-chord. Similarly there will be a sub-chord
at the end of the curve. Thus a curve usually
consists of two sub-chords and a no. of full
chords.

34
Example : A simple circular curve is to have a radius
of 573 m .the tangents intersect at chainage 1060 m
and the angle of intersection is 1200. Find,
(i) Tangent Distance.
(ii) Chainage at beginning and end of the curve.
(iii) Length of the long chord.
(iv) Degree of the curve.
(v) Number of full and sub chords.

Solution: Please see fig.11

Given,
The deflection angle, φ= 1800 – 1200 =600
Radius of curve = R = 573 m
PTO
35
 1060 m 600 = φ
1200
330.85
L=600m
729.15 1329.15
T1 T2

R=573m

O
Fig.11

36
(i) We know ,tangent length = R tan φ /2
= 573 x tan 300
= 573x 0.5774
= 330.85 m (Ans.)
(ii) Length of curve is given by: π R φ
1800
= π x 573x600
1800
= 600 m (Ans.)
Chainage of first tangent point (T1)
= Chainage of intersection point – tangent length.
= 1060 – 330.85
= 729.15 m (Ans.)
PTO
37
(iii) The length of long chord is given by:
L = 2R sin φ /2
= 2 x 573 x sin 300
= 573 m ( Ans.)

(iv) Degree of Curve

We know the relation , R= 1719
D

or D = 1719
R
=30
Therefore , degree of curve is =30 (Ans.)
PTO
38
(v) Number of Full and sub chords:
Assuming peg interval =30m
Chainage of T1 = 729.15 m = 729.15 Chain lengths.
30
= 24 full chain lengths + 9.15 m
Chainage of Ist peg on the curve should be 25 full chain lengths.
The length of Ist sub chord= (25+00) – (24 + 9.15)
= 20.85 m
Chainage of T2 = 1329.15 Chain lengths.
30
= 44 full chain lengths + 9.15 m.
Chainage of last peg on the curve =44 full chains.

Therefore length of last sub chord = (44+9.15) – (44+00)

= 9.15m
PTO
39
No. Of full chords = chainage of last peg – chainage of Ist peg
= 44 – 25 = 19
So, there will be 19 full chords and two sub chords.
Check:
Length of full chords = 19x30 =570.00m
” ” Ist sub chord = 20.85m
” ” last sub chord = 9.15m

Total length of all chords = 600.00m

(Same as length of curve)

PTO
40
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves

The following are the methods of setting out

simple circular curves by the use of chain
and tape :-
(i) By offsets from the tangents.
(ii) By successive bisection of arcs.
(iii) By offsets from chords produced.

41
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
1. By offsets from the tangents. When the
deflection angle and the radius of the
curve both are small, the curves are set out
by offsets from the tangents.
Offsets are set out either
(i) radially or
(ii) perpendicular to the tangents
according as the centre of the curve is
accessible or inaccessible

42
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
B’

B φ

x P Ox

P1
T2
T1 900

A C

Fig. 12 By Radial Offsets

43
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
B’

Offsets is given by :

Ox = R2 +x2 – R …….. (Exact relation.)

When the radius is large ,the offsets may be
calculated by the approximate formula
which is as under
Ox = x2 ……… (Approximate )
2R
By Radial Offsets

44
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
B’

P
Ox
x
P1
T1 T2

A
P2
B

Fig. 13.
O

(ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents

45
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
1. (ii) By offsets perpendicular to the Tangents

Ox= R – R2 – x2 …………… (Exact)

Ox = x2 ……… (Approximate )
2R

46
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
By offsets from the tangents: Procedure

(i) Locate the tangent points T1 and T2.

(ii) Measure equal distances , say 15 or 30 m

along the tangent fro T1.

(iii) Set out the offsets calculated by any of

the above methods at each distance ,thus
obtaining the required points on the
curve.
47
LINEAR METHODS of setting out Curves
By offsets from the tangents: Procedure….

(iv) Continue the process until the apex of

the curve is reached.
(v) Set out the other half of the curve from
second tangent.
(vi) This method is suitable for setting out
sharp curves where the ground outside
the curve is favourable for chaining.

48
Example. Calculate the offsets at 20m intervals along
the tangents to locate a curve having a radius of
400m ,the deflection angle being 600 .

Solution . Given:
Radius of the curve ,R = 400m
Deflection angle, φ = 600
Therefore tangent length = R. tan φ/2
= 400 x tan 600
= 230.96 m
Radial offsets. (Exact method)
Ox= R2 + x2 - R …………… (Exact)

49
Radial offsets. (Exact method)
Ox= R2 + x2 - R …………… (Exact)

O20 = 4002+202 - 400 = 400.50 - 400 = 0.50 m

O40 = 4002+402 - 400 = 402.00 - 400 = 2.00 m

O60 = 4002+602 - 400 = 404.47 - 400 = 4.47 m

O80 = 4002+802 - 400 = 407.92 - 400 = 7.92 m

O100 = 4002+1002- 400 = 412.31 - 400 = 12.31 m

And so on….
50
B) Perpendicular offsets (Exact method)

Ox = R – R2 – x2 …………… (Exact)

O20 = 400 - 4002 - 202 = 400 -399.50 = 0.50 m

O40 = 400 - 4002 - 402 = 400 -398.00 = 2.00 m

O60 = 400 - 4002 - 602 = 400 -395.47 = 4.53 m

O80 = 400 - 4002 - 802 = 400 -391.92 =8.08 m

O100 = 400 - 4002 -1002 = 400 -387.30 =12.70 m

And so on…..
51
B) By the approximate Formula
(Both radial and perpendicular offsets)
Ox = x2
2R
Therefore O20 = 202 = 0.50 m
2x400
O40 = 402 = 2.00 m
2x400
O60 = 602 = 4.50 m
2x400
O80 = 802 = 8.00 m
2x 400
O100 = 1002 = 12.50 m
2 x 400
and so on….
52
 Compound Circular Curves
Combination of two or more simple circular curves of
different radius having their curvature in the same direction.
. The point where the two curves connect is referred to as the
point of compound curvature (PCC).

R2
O2
R1
ELEMENTS OF COMPOUND CURVE
ELEMENTS OF COMPOUND CURVE
TRANSITION CURVE
A transition curve is a curve of varying radius
introduced between a straight and a circular curve or
between two circular curves to facilitate change over
from straight to curve or from one 'curve' to another.

When a vehicle or a train enters a curve, it

experiences a centrifugal force, which tends to cause
derailment, overturning or side slipping of vehicles.
SUPER ELEVATION
To avoid this, super elevation is provided which
means raising the outer edge of a curve over the
inner one. Transition curve helps in (i) providing
superelevation. (ii) increase ,or decrease in curvature
When a vehicle moves on a
curve there are two forces
acting: (i) Weight of the vehicle,
W, (ii) Centrifugal force P. If
there is no lateral thrust then the
resultant force must be normal·
to the inclined surface
In railways if the cant or super elevation is provided by
the' above relation, it is known 'as equilibrium cant, If
less cant is provided the' track 'will' have cant
 CENTRIFUGAL RATIO
The ratio of the centrifugal force and weight is called the
centrifugal ratio

The maximum value of centrifugal ratio is I/4 for road and for
railway it is. 1/8.
Thus for roads
LENGTH OF A TRANSITION CURVE
IDEAL TRANSITION CURVE
In a transition curve super elevation is gradually provided. It is zero at the
straight and reaches its maximum value at the beginning of the circular
curve

where L is the total length of the transition curve and R, radius of the
curve at its end (i.e. minimum radius).
Thus the fundamental requirement of a transition curve is that its radius
of curvature r at any point shall vary inversely as the distance l from the
beginning of the curve.
Such a curve is the clothoid or the Glover's spiral and is known as the
ideal transition curve..
Thus a clothoid is a curve whose radius decreases linearly from infinity
to zero. It fulfills the condition of an ideal transition curve, i.e.,

rl = constant = RL = K

The intrinsic equation of the ideal transition curve is

Deflection angle of curve =

Equation of the curve in terms of Cartesian Coordinates

Cubic Spiral

Cubic Parabola
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSITION CURVE

To accommodate a transition curve. the original circular curve is

usually shifted slightly inwards
VERTICAL CURVES

For highways and railways whenever there is a change of

grade in the vertical plane, a vertical curve is required to
smoothen the change.

It is usually parabolic as parabolic curves provide a

constant rate of change of grade.

There are four types of vertical curves a) Sag curve; (b)

Crest or summit curve; (c) Rising curve; (d) Falling curve.

In a sag curve, a down grade is followed by an upgrade.

In a summit curve an upgrade is followed by a downgrade.
In a rising curve an upgrade is followed by another
upgrade
In a falling curve a down grade is followed by another
downgrade.
In a sag curve, a down grade is followed by an upgrade.
In a summit curve an upgrade is followed by a downgrade.
In a rising curve an upgrade is followed by another
upgrade
In a falling curve a down grade is followed by another
downgrade.
74