OSI Reference Model

 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model is a conceptual framework

that standardizes the functions of networking and telecommunications systems.

 The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the
process of transmitting data between computers.

 It divides the process of network communication into seven distinct layers, each with
specific responsibilities.

 The OSI model ensure that different types of networking hardware and software can
communicate effectively by adhering to a common set of protocols and standards. Here
are the seven layers of the OSI model:

1. Physical Layer

2. Data Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer

1.

1. Physical Layer – Layer 1

  The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Note:
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as
Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node
to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
 The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
  Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.

 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over
the channel at a given time.

Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device
drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network

layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in
the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

Note:
1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.
4. Transport Layer – Layer 4

 The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from
the network layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
 It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found.
 Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address.
Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Note:
1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP

5. Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use, and terminate a connection.
  Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that
the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data
loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.

6. Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF

7. Application Layer – Layer 7

 At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, which is implemented by the
network applications.
 These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This
layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

 FTAM- File transfer access and management: This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources

and access for global information about various objects and services.
Example: Flow of data in OSI Model

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI
model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver’s end.

Let’s look at it with an Example:

RAM sends an e-mail to his friend SITA.

Step 1: RAM interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send.
(This happens in Layer 7: Application layer)

Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for
transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)

Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet. (This
happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)

Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking
information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport
Layer)

Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This happens
in Layer 3: Network Layer)

Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices
and then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)

Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical
network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. SITA, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail
content. At last, the email will be shown on SITA’s email client.