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Computers and Computer Systems

A computer system is a computer combined with other equipment, called peripherals, so that it can perform desired functions.
Examples of peripheral devices include input and output devices such as keyboards and monitors, but any device containing a
computer can be considered a computer system.

A computer is a device that can follow a set of instructions to carry out sequences of arithmetical and logical operations. The
instructions to be followed are called a program.

There are two main parts of any computer system: the hardware and the software.

Hardware
Computer hardware consists of the physical parts of a computer system, the parts you can touch. This includes:

The case
Components inside the case, such as:
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Motherboard
Graphics card
Sound card
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Internal memory
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Internal and external storage devices
Input and output devices
Keyboard
Mouse
Monitor
Speakers
Printer
Camera

Definitions:

Component: The parts that make up a whole machine. The internal parts are usually referred to as components and
the external devices as peripherals.

Hardware: The physical parts of a computer system, the parts you can touch. This includes the motherboard, CPU,
keyboard, mouse, printer, and so on.

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The unit which performs most of the processing inside a computer.

Motherboard: Also called the system board. The main printed circuit board of the computer; it has connectors that
other circuit boards can be slotted into.

Graphics Card: A printed circuit board that controls the output to a display screen or monitor.

Sound Card: A printed circuit board that controls output to speakers and headphones.

Circuit Board: A thin rigid board containing thin lines of metals on the surface to create electric circuits.

Network Interface Card (NIC): A printed circuit board that allows the computer to communicate with other devices
over a computer network.

Internal Memory: Data storage spaces that are accessible to the CPU.

The main memory is used to store all the data and instructions currently being used. It is sometimes called internal memory.
When a computer is turned off, the data that is stored in internal memory is lost. Therefore, internal and external storage devices
are needed to permanently store this data.

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The component that makes a device a computer is the central processing unit (CPU), also known as the processor. This
interprets all of the instructions in the programs and executes them (carries them out).

Most computer systems display the results of their processing to users through a monitor and speakers. They therefore have their
own dedicated printed circuit boards called a graphics card for the monitor and sound card for the speakers or headphones.

All of the components inside the case of a computer must be fixed (so that they do not move about) and be able to communicate
with each other. They are all fixed to sockets in a board with thin strips of copper connecting them together. This is a type of
printed circuit board and is called the system board or motherboard.

If the computer is being connected to a network, then a network interface card (NIC) may need to be fitted to the motherboard,
although most modern computers have these built into the motherboard.

When a computer is operating, data must be input so that it can be worked on or processed, and the results of this processing
need to be output to the user. A computer system therefore needs various input and output devices such as keyboards, cameras,
mice, printers, monitors, and speakers.

Software
However advanced or expensive the hardware of a computer system is, it cannot do anything unless it is told what to do. These
instructions are provided by programs that together are called computer software. Software controls the operations of a
computer or processing of electronic data.

There are two main types of software:

Applications software: Lets you do your day-to-day tasks on the computer. Applications software needs the operating
system to be able to work with the computer.
System software: Includes the operating system and utilities software that are essential to keep the computer working.

Definitions:

Software: Programs or applications that give instructions to the computer to tell it what to do.

Applications Software: Programs that carry out operations for specific applications, such as word processing,
spreadsheets or presentations. Applications software cannot run on its own without system software.

System Software: System software provides the services that the computer requires to operate. This may be
classified as the operating system and utility software.

Operating System (OS): The operating system is a collection of programs to control and manage all of the software
and hardware of the computer system.

Utility Software (Utilities): Part of the system software that can analyse, configure, optimise and maintain a computer
to keep it working as well as possible.

Applications
Here are a few examples of applications software that you may use:

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Word processing applications are used to produce letters, reports and memos.
Spreadsheet applications are used for tasks that involve calculations or graphs and charts.
Database management programs are used to store and retrieve information in databases.
Presentation applications are used to create slide shows and presentations.
Graphics editing software is used to create artwork, or with photographs from a digital camera or a scanned image to edit
the image.
Video editing software is used to produce and edit videos.
Computer-aided design (CAD) packages are used to produce detailed technical designs and plans.
Audio production and editing programs are a common way of producing high-quality music at low cost.
Communications software, such as web browsers and email programs, is used to access the internet and send and receive
email.
Control software is used to control devices such as fire alarms and mechanical devices.
Measurement software is used to

System Software
System software facilitates the operation of computer hardware and the execution of application software. Examples of system
software include:

Compilers: Translates high-level programming language into machine code (1s and 0s) that the microprocessor can
understand.
Linkers: Combines files produced by a compiler into an executable program.
Device Drivers: Enables communication between the processor and hardware devices like keyboards, mice, monitors, and
printers. Device drivers are part of the operating system.
Operating Systems: Manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer
programs.
Utilities: System software that helps maintain and manage the computer.

Analogue and Digital Data

Analogue Data
Information represented by a continuously variable quantity, such as electric voltage or current.

An analogue system has a continuous range between two values, like a dimmer switch. Sound, caused by vibrations in the air, is
analogue in nature.

Digital Data
Information represented by fixed values, typically the digits 1 and 0.

A digital system has separate states, like a transistor that is either on (1) or off (0).

Analogue-to-Digital Conversion
When computers process sound, they take snapshots of sound waves at regular intervals. This is called sampling. The more
samples taken per second, the more accurately the sound will be represented. Common sampling rates include:

44,100 samples per second (typical for recordings)

96,000 samples per second (used for Blu-ray audio)

Each sample is coded as a series of 1s and 0s (bits). The more bits used, the more detail can be recorded.

Bit: Short for binary digit, the smallest unit of data in a computer, having a value of either 1 or 0.

When digital sound is played back, it must be converted back into analogue signals via a digital-to-analogue converter (DAC)
to be output through speakers or headphones.

Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC): A device used to convert digital signals into analogue ones.

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Transistors
A device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch for electronic signals.

Transistors act as switches, either on or off, represented by the binary number system's digits, 1 and 0. The CPU contains billions
of transistors connected to form circuits.

The Main Components of Computer Systems - The Central Processing

Unit (CPU)
The CPU executes program instructions, processes data, and controls other computer components. It consists of:

Control Unit (CU)

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Clock
Registers

Control Unit (CU)

Component of the CPU that directs the operations of the processor.

The CU coordinates the actions of the computer, manages components, controls program execution, and processes data by
sending control signals.

Control Signals: Electrical signals sent to devices to check their status and give them instructions.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Part of the CPU that performs arithmetical and logical operations.

The ALU carries out:

Addition and subtraction

Multiplication and division
Comparisons (e.g., determining if one number is greater than another)

Clock
The clock controls the rate at which the CPU works. The clock sends out a pulse to the control unit which can process one
instruction for each pulse. The number of pulses per second is known as the clock speed.

Registers
Memory storage locations within the CPU.

Registers store instructions and data currently in use by the control unit.

Internal Memory
Internal memory consists of random-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

Memory that stores data and applications while they are being used.

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RAM is volatile, meaning data is lost when the power is switched off. It consists of billions of storage locations that can be
accessed in any order for fast data retrieval.

Volatile: A state where data is permanently lost when power is switched off.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Memory with data pre-installed that cannot be removed.

ROM is non-volatile, meaning it retains data when the computer is turned off. The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is stored
on ROM and is used when a computer is turned on to check hardware and load basic software.

Non-Volatile: A state where data is retained when power is switched off.

Backing Storage
Because RAM is volatile, programs and data must be stored on backing storage devices (or secondary storage devices) to
prevent data loss when the computer is switched off.

Backing Storage Device: A secondary storage device that will continue to hold data even after the computer has been
turned off.

Examples include hard drives, solid-state drives, memory sticks, memory cards, CDs, and DVDs. Backing storage can be internal
or external.

Input and Output Devices

Input Devices
Any hardware device that sends data to a computer.

Common input devices include keyboards, mice, touchpads, microphones, bar code readers, scanners, digital cameras, and
joysticks.

Output Devices
Any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user.

Examples include display screens (monitors), printers, speakers, plotters, and projectors.

1.3 Operating Systems

An operating system controls how the computer interacts with users and peripherals.

Peripherals: External devices that provide input and output for the computer.

The operating system has programs, called managers, that:

Manage all hardware devices

Control all processes running in the computer
Manage the internal memory

Operating System Comparison

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Windows macOS Unix

Introduced in 1984; fully

Introduction First introduced in 1985; full GUI in 1995. Developed in the 1960s.
GUI from the start.
Expensive; requires
Cost Expensive. Open source, free to use.
Apple hardware.
Less popular; about 10% About 1% of computers use
Popularity Most popular on non-Apple PCs (90% of computers).
of computers. Unix.
Malware Targeted by more malware. Very little malware. Even less malware than macOS.
Always running in the background; applications can call Still widely used today in large,
Functionality Developed from Unix.
the operating system when they want something done. commercial organisations.

User Interfaces
A user interface converts user input into a form the computer can understand and vice versa. Types of user interfaces include:

Command Line Interface (CLI)

Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Dialogue-Based Interface
Gesture-Based Interface

Command Line Interface (CLI)

A text-based interface that allows the user to interact with a computer using keyboard input at a prompt on the
screen.

Advantages:

Requires very little processing, so runs quickly on less powerful computers.

Advanced users can operate them faster than users who need to use a mouse.

Disadvantages:

Commands need to be learned and often aren't obvious.

Looks intimidating for new users.
Users must be careful not to make typing errors.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

An interface that provides an intuitive way of interacting with a computer through a screen by clicking on icons,
menus, buttons, or windows using a mouse, touchpad, or touch screen.

A GUI is often called a WIMP interface, which stands for:

Windows
Icons
Menus
Pointers

Advantages:

Intuitive, as files and directories are represented by icons.

Users don’t have to learn complicated commands.
Easy to use; for example, moving a file only requires dragging its icon.

Disadvantages:

Can be slower for experienced users.

Uses a lot of the computer’s internal memory to run.
Requires more CPU usage than CLIs.

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Dialogue-Based Interface
An interface that allows a user to interact with a computer through the spoken word.

Advantages:

Allows hands-free control.

The user doesn’t have to be trained but may have to learn the necessary key words that the computer will accept.
Safer when operating machinery such as driving, and useful for disabled users.

Disadvantages:

Users have to train the interface with their voice.

May not be reliable, especially if there is background noise.
Not suitable for safety-critical commands.
Complex to program and therefore expensive.

Gesture-Based Interface
An interface that allows a user to interact with a computer at a distance by using movements of various parts of their
body.

Advantages:

The user doesn’t have to use a mouse or keyboard.

The user doesn’t have to move to the device, as they can make gestures from where they are sitting or standing.
The user doesn’t have to touch a screen that others have been touching, preventing the spread of disease.

Disadvantages:

Users have to learn the gestures for particular requests.

A system is required to recognize face movements and hand gestures.
Users may have to wear motion tracking gloves.
Users may become fatigued after performing the gestures.

Mobile Computers
These days there are many forms of mobile computer, not just laptops. Tablets, smartphones, and phablets are all popular
mobile computers and, because of the weight and size of a laptop, are far more portable. Although all tablets can connect to the
internet using Wi-Fi, you can also get tablets that let you use 4G or 5G mobile internet connections.

Desktop Computers
A computer system designed to be used at a desk in a fixed location.

Desktops are very versatile, general purpose computers used by many organisations and individuals for:

Office work and business management, using word processing, spreadsheet and database management software.
Management in education and student learning.
Playing computer games.
Other entertainment such as watching movies and editing images and video.

Portable Computing Devices

Smartphones and Phablets

A smartphone is a multifunctioning mobile phone equipped with features like a camera, web browser, high-density display,
and touch screen.
A phablet is a large smartphone, almost the size of a tablet, with a screen measuring at least 6 inches diagonally.
Smartphones and phablets use apps for various functions, including medical monitoring, star recognition, word processing,
and gaming.

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Laptop Computers
Laptops are portable and compact personal computers with the same capabilities as a desktop computer.
Laptops offer flexibility, allowing users to work in different locations.
They incorporate peripherals like speakers, cameras, and microphones.
Laptops can be battery operated but require frequent charging.

Tablet Computers
Tablets became a mass-market product in 2010.
A tablet is a handheld, internet-enabled computer with a touch screen display.
Tablets run application software, known as apps, and provide quick access to the internet.

Comparison of Computer Types

Device Advantages Disadvantages

More powerful, larger screen, better posture, easy to

Desktops Not portable, restricted to one area, takes up space.
upgrade, less likely to be stolen, cost-effective.
Excellent for work, full-size keyboard, light and portable,
Larger and heavier than tablets/smartphones, slower
Laptops integrated camera/speaker/microphone, more expandable
to start, limited battery life.
than smartphones/tablets.
Quick to turn on, portable, easy to use, many apps, data
Can be expensive, not all have expandable memory,
Tablets transfer ability, expandable with portable keyboard,
limited battery life.
integrated camera/speaker/microphone.
Small screens, limited battery life, web browsing
Pocket-sized, calls/texts/emails, Wi-Fi, 4G/5G connectivity,
Smartphones drains battery, slow typing on touch screen, data
many apps, integrated camera/speaker/microphone.
transfer speed and compatibility issues.

Emerging Technologies

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence is the ability of a digital computer or robot to perform tasks commonly associated with human
intelligence, such as learning, problem-solving, and pattern recognition.
AI allows computers or robots to modify their behavior to achieve different outcomes without human intervention.

Machine Learning
Machine learning is the ability of computers to learn without being explicitly programmed.

M achineLearning : T heabilityof computerstolearnbybeinggivenlotsof examples

Example: A computer can learn to recognize a sheep by being shown millions of images of sheep.

Machine learning is always dependent on the learning data given to the computer by humans, and this data may introduce
bias.

Amazon stopped using its AI tool for job interviews in 2019 due to bias against female job applicants.

Extended Reality (XR)

Extended reality is an "immersive technology" that includes virtual reality and augmented reality, immersing users in a
virtual or combined virtual and real environment.

Virtual Reality (VR)

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Virtual reality is a computer-generated environment where users can immerse themselves and interact.

V irtualReality : Acomputer − generatedenvironmentwhereonecanimmersethemselvesandinteracttoperf ormawidevariety

To participate in VR, users wear goggles for a 3D effect, gloves for finger movement detection, and headphones.
VR can provide virtual tours, create prototypes, and offer training in difficult situations.

Augmented Reality (AR)

Augmented reality allows users to interact with the real and virtual world simultaneously by superimposing a computer-
generated image on a user’s view of the real world.

AugmentedReality : Acombinedvirtualandrealenvironment

Examples of augmented reality:

Navigation systems providing extra information on street views.

The Ikea Place app, allowing users to place furniture in their room virtually.
Apps allowing customers to try out different paint colors on their walls.
Architects using AR to visualize proposed designs in a space.

Pokémon Go is an example of an augmented reality game.

Autonomous Machines
Autonomous machines can make their own decisions without human involvement or guidance.
Examples include driverless cars and lethal autonomous weapons.
Ethical and legal questions arise, such as how driverless cars should respond to accidents and who is responsible when a
car crashes.

Sensors in Everyday Life

Car Park Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors are used to detect the presence of vehicles by emitting ultrasonic sound waves.
Older car parks used coils of wire to detect vehicles.
Sensors notify users of the number of spaces available and when the car park is full.

Input Devices

Keyboards and Keypads

Keyboards are input devices used to enter fixed values, such as characters and numbers, into the computer system.
A QWERTY keyboard is the most common type.
Numeric keypads provide a fast method of input for numbers.

Pointing Devices
A mouse is a pointing device used to move the pointer on a screen.
An optical mouse uses an optical sensor to detect changes in reflected light.

Pointing Devices

Mice
Mice are used with computers to move the pointer/cursor on the screen. Different types include mechanical and optical mice.

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Optical mouse: Emits light and uses an optical sensor to detect changes in the reflected light to move the pointer.
Wireless mouse: Communicates with the computer using radio waves, without a cable.

Advantages:

Common and familiar

Easy to use

Disadvantages:

Requires a fixed surface

Touchpads
A touchpad is a flat area next to the keyboard, often found on laptops, used as a pointing device. It allows swiping and using one,
two, or more fingers for different functions, including zooming.

Touchpad: A pointing device, often found on a laptop, that allows the user to use their finger to move the pointer on
the screen.

Trackerballs
Trackerballs are like upside-down mechanical mice, where the user moves the ball directly.

Trackerball: A device to move a pointer where a ball is rolled around directly by the user rather than being moved by
the whole mouse being pushed.

Advantages over a mouse:

Stationary, doesn't need a surface

Can be built into a computer
Usable by disabled people

Disadvantages:

Can be difficult to use for applications needing fine control

Joysticks and Driving Wheels

Joysticks
A joystick can carry out the same tasks as a mouse as well as other functions such as controlling movement.

Joystick: A joystick can carry out the same tasks as a mouse as well as other functions such as controlling movement

Advantages:

Used to control movement accurately.

Used in practical applications

Disadvantages:

More difficult to control fine movement of the pointer

Driving Wheels
A driving wheel is designed for use in racing video games and driving/racing simulators.

Driving wheel: Also called a ‘racing wheel’. Used as an input device in racing games and simulations where users
control vehicles

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Advantages:

Provides a sense of control in games

Force feedback simulates road resistance

Disadvantages:

Can only be used for one purpose

Increased manufacturing costs

Touch Screens
A touch screen is a display screen that is both an input and an output device.

Touch screen: A display screen that is both an input and an output device and that can respond to a user interacting
with a specific area

Advantages:

Intuitive and easy to use

Space-saving
Cost-effective for self-service

Disadvantages:

Not suitable for large amounts of data

Not very accurate for selecting small areas
Difficult for some disabled people
Hygiene problems

Types of touch screens:

Resistive: Sensitive to pressure

Capacitive: Sensitive to static electricity

Resistive touch screen: A touch screen that is sensitive to pressure from your finger. Capacitive touch screen: A
touch screen that is sensitive to the static electricity from your finger.

Digital Cameras
Digital cameras capture digital photographs that can be stored on a memory card or a hard disk and displayed on a screen.

Digital camera: Produces digital images that can be stored in a computer and displayed on a screen

Advantages over traditional film cameras:

Immediate picture review

Easier image manipulation
Can be used in other electronic documents
Takes moving images and records audio

Disadvantages over traditional film cameras:

File sizes can be very large

May need expensive software to edit them

Video Cameras and Webcams

Video cameras record moving pictures, or video, that are stored electronically. Webcams are video cameras connected directly to
a computer with no storage capacity.

Video camera: A camera to make a record of moving pictures that are stored electronically. Webcam: A special
category of video camera that have no storage capacity but is connected directly to a computer.

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Advantages of video cameras:

Take moving images and not just still ones.

Record audio as well as images.
Provide a more realistic record of an event.

Disadvantages of video cameras:

The storage device, usually a memory card, may become full so that images are not saved.
The memory card may become corrupted.
The camera battery may run out so that photographs cannot be taken.

Pixel: An individual point of light in a digital image.

Microphones
Microphones input sounds into a computer by converting sound waves into digital data.

Microphone: A device that converts sound to an analogue electrical signal

Uses:

Video-conferencing
Adding speech to presentations
Computer control via spoken commands
Dictation

Disadvantages:

Cheap microphones may not accurately represent input sounds

Sensors
A sensor detects and responds to input from the environment (e.g., light, temperature, motion, pressure).

Sensor: A device that detects and responds to some type on input from the environment, e.g. light, temperature,
motion, pressure.

Advantages:

More reliable than humans

More accurate readings
Can access inaccessible places

Disadvantages:

If they malfunction, the users will not know.

Digital sensors need a power source

Examples of sensors:

Temperature sensors: Read the temperature of their surroundings.

Light sensors: Measure the amount of light.
Pressure sensors: Measure pressures.
Smartphone sensors: Measure things like movement and rotation, pressure and light intensity.

Temperature sensor: A device that reads the temperature of its surroundings and sends the readings to the
processor.

Light Pens and Graphics Tablets

Light Pens

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Light pens were light-sensitive input devices used with CRT monitors to select text, draw pictures, and interact with user
interfaces.

Light pen: A specialised pen that works with a CRT monitor

Graphics Tablets
A graphics tablet is a flat pad used with a stylus to "draw" on the computer.

Graphics tablet: An input device consisting of a flat pad which the user ‘draws’ on or points at with a special light pen
or stylus. Stylus: A pen-shaped instrument whose tip position on a touch screen or tablet can be detected.

Table 2.1: Advantages and disadvantages of a stylus and light pen

Advantages Disadvantages

Both are easy to use. Light pens can only be used with some screens.
Both provide accurate positioning. Light pens don't work on LCD screens.
Both are ergonomically designed for ease of Both can impair the view of the computer screen that they are being used
movement. on.
Both don't take up much desk space. Both are not good for basic operations such as printing and selecting.
Both are lightweight. Graphics tablets are relatively expensive.
Both have no moving parts.

Direct Data Entry

Magnetic Stripe Readers

Magnetic stripe readers read the black magnetic stripe found on cards.

Magnetic stripe reader: A device used to read a magnetic stripe of a card, which contains data, or to write to the
stripe

Advantages:

Simple for people to use

Very inexpensive
Fast data entry
No input errors
Data can be altered if necessary

Disadvantages:

Small storage capacity

Data can be destroyed by magnetic fields
Insecure
Requires physical proximity

Chip and PIN Readers

Chip and PIN readers are used to read the data stored in the silicon chip of a credit or debit card to verify the personal
identification number (PIN).

Chip and PIN reader: Device used to read the data stored in the silicon chip of a credit or debit card to verify the
personal identification number (PIN) entered using a numeric keypad

RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification)

RFID is a technology where an RFID reader uses radio waves to identify and track special tags attached to objects.

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RFID (radio-frequency identification): an RFID r eader uses radio waves to identify and track special tags attached to
objects unique identifier: a characteristic or element that is found only on one particular item RFID tag: radio-
frequency identification tag. Contains digital data that can be interr ogated by and send the data to a reader device
using radio waves

An RFID device is similar to a bar code or the magnetic stripe on a credit card.
When scanned, it provides a unique identifier for the object it is attached to.
The chips don't need to be precisely positioned on the scanner, unlike bar codes.
RFID devices work within a few meters of the scanner.
All items in a shopping cart can be read at once.
Data can be written to RFID tags.
RFID tags can be used for tracking items (e.g., luggage, animals).
Almost anything can have an RFID tag (e.g., merchandise, shipping containers, musical instruments).
Contactless payments use RFID.
RFID tags can be fixed to shoes or bibs of runners to record accurate start and finish times.

RFID Readers
RFID has three elements:

A scanning antenna
A decoder to interpret the data
The RFID tag itself, programmed with information

Advantages of RFID
RFID chips don’t need to be positioned precisely.
They can read chips a few meters away.
They can read all the tags on goods in a trolley at once.
The information held is more secure than a magnetic stripe because the chip is difficult to read and harder to clone.
The computer chip can hold more information than a magnetic stripe.
Chip and PIN readers can be wireless.

Disadvantages of RFID
Tags can be read without authentication, so hackers could read or clone them.

Scanning can be affected by other electrical devices.

Range is limited to about three meters.

Passive tags use power from the reader, while active tags have their own battery.

OCR (Optical Character Recognition) and OMR (Optical Mark

Recognition)
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) and Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) are technologies used to input data.

OCR: optical character recognition scans a typewritten or printed document and translates the images of the
characters into digital text that can be used on the computer OMR: optical mark recognition enables data marked by a
human, by making marks to select options to be captured for processing by a computer

OCR scans a document and converts the images of characters into digital text.
OMR identifies marks on paper to capture data.
OCR and OMR are further discussed in Chapter 6, Section 6.10 Recognition systems.

OMR

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OMR scanning aims to find marks on the paper; it is not interested in their shape, only where they are.

Advantages of OMR
It can be a really fast way of entering hard-copy.
It can avoid typing errors.
It is much cheaper than employing someone to input hard-copy if a high level of accuracy isn’t an issue.
Extremely fast to input data.
More accurate than using humans to check the paper.

Disadvantages of OMR
Sheets won't be read accurately unless properly lined up.
Dirty marks might be misinterpreted.
Can only read the marks (i.e., can’t read or input any text).
Paper jams can occur.

OCR
OCR software compares the shape of each character with known shapes and stores the corresponding letter.
OCR software can also be used to read data from passports or identity cards directly into a computer.

Advantages of OCR
It can be a really fast way of entering hard-copy.
It can avoid typing errors.
It is much cheaper than employing someone to input hard-copy if a high level of accuracy isn’t an issue.

Disadvantages of OCR
The text produced is not always reliable, particularly if the hard-copy original has strange fonts/poor handwriting, is unclear
or has smudged text. This can lead to incorrect information being stored.
If 100% accuracy is required, the information needs to manually checked for errors, which is time consuming and can be
costly.

QR (Quick Response) Codes

QR Codes are two-dimensional bar codes that can be read using a camera and software.

QR code: quick response code – a type of two dimensional bar code (in a square) that can store data such as URLs,
geotags and links QR scanner: a quick response scanner consists of softwar e and hardware, such as a smartphone
and an app used to read and respond to the data stored in a QR code. They are most conveniently used on
smartphones which can be easily positioned in front of the QR code

They provide a link directly to text, emails, and websites.

Smartphones with a camera can easily be positioned in front of the code.
External scanners can be used for desktop and laptop computers.
The QR code is an image-based link, as found on websites, which can be used offline.
The app that reads the QR code uses the device’s camera and then accesses the website using a data connection, for
example, via Wi-Fi.
The smartphone with the app is the QR scanner.
Many advertised products and services have a QR code associated with them.

Bar Codes
bar code: a set of short parallel lines in contrasting colours, often black and white, that stand for the digits 0 to 9. Bar
code readers shine a laser at them and then read the reflection to tell how thick the lines are

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A set of short parallel lines in contrasting colors (often black and white).
Read by devices that shine a laser and read the reflection.
Used in supermarkets, retail outlets, and libraries.
Faster and more accurate than using a keyboard.

Information in a Bar Code

Country of origin number
Manufacturer number
Item number
Check digit

Note: The price of the item is NOT in the bar code.

Advantages of QR Codes and Scanners

You can store lots of information on a QR code without having to write it down.
QR codes can be used for anything by anyone.
QR codes can be scanned from any direction making them easier to be read with less possibility of background interference.

Disadvantages of QR Codes and Scanners

You need a smartphone with a camera and the app installed to be able to read them.
QR codes are still relatively new and so not everyone is aware of them or what they represent.
Relies on the QR code being correct.

Output Devices
output device: any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user

Output devices are required so that the results of computer pr ocessing can be processed directly (e.g. by controlling
motors) or be displayed to the users of the system.
Monitors, touch screens, multimedia projectors, printers, and speakers are examples of output devices.

Monitors
monitor: an output device that visually displays the data output by a computer

Monitors are often called ‘computer screens’ or ‘displays’ as they display ay the computer’s interface and software that is
running to the users so that they can interact with it using input devices such as keyboards and mice.
Modern monitors use liquid crystals (LCD), thin film transistors (TFT), or light emitting diodes (LED).
Older monitors used cathode ray tubes (CRTs), which were heavy and bulky.
TFT monitors can be easily wall mounted and produce less glare.

Touch Screens
Touch screens are monitors (output devices) that can also be used as input de vices and are covered in detail in Section 2.1.
As an output device, they function in the same way as a monitor. However, their advantage over ordinary monitors is that
they allow users to interact with the operating system and use software without the need for mice and other pointing
devices.

Multimedia Projectors
multimedia projector: device that can project an image from a computer onto as large a surface as is necessary, often
used in presentations

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Multimedia projectors project an image from a computer onto a large surface.

Used in presentations to large audiences.
Limited by the power and brightness of the light.
Can be portable or fixed.
Relies on a powerful and expensive bulb.

Printers and Plotters

printers and plotters: devices that produce output onto paper and onto other materials

Printers and plotters produce characters and graphics onto paper and other materials, creating "hard copies."

Dot-Matrix Printers
dot matrix printer: a printer that uses a set of pins to press an inked ribbon against the paper, creating the output out
of dots

Use a set of pins to press an inked ribbon against the paper, creating output out of dots.

Advantages of Dot Matrix Printers

Can be used in dusty and dirty environments.
Can be used on continuous or single sheets of paper.

Disadvantages of Dot Matrix Printers

They are slow.
They are noisy.
They have a poor quality output.
There are very limited colour capabilities.
They are more expensive than ink jet printers.

Inkjet Printers
inkjet printer: a printer that works by squirting ink at the page out of different nozzles for different coloured ink

Squirt ink at the page out of different nozzles for different coloured ink.
Produce high-quality output.
Relatively cheap to buy, but ink refills are expensive.
Commonly used in home computer systems and small offices.

Laser Printers
laser printer: a printer that works by using a laser to ‘draw’ the required outputs onto a drum and uses toner to print
the output onto paper

Use a laser to "draw" outputs onto a drum.

Ink powder (toner) sticks where there is an electric charge.
The paper is heated to bind the toner.
Used when quality and speed of output are important.

Disadvantages of Laser Printers

Reproduction of color may not be as precise as with an inkjet printer.
They tend to be more expensive to buy than inkjet printers
Toner is toxic, and cartridges must be disposed of carefully.

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Plotters
Used to draw graphics on paper using pens.
Used for computer-aided design (CAD), architectural drawings, blueprints, and technical drawings.
Can print very accurately on very large sheets of paper and on different materials such as wood or plastic.

3D Printers
3D printer: a printer that works by printing in layers on top of each other, r, eventually creating a 3D object

Produce three-dimensional solid objects from digital files.

Lay down successive layers of material.
Used in medicine to produce organs and bones.
Currently used to "print" car parts, chocolate cake, and prosthetic limbs.

Speakers
speaker: a device to enable you to hear sounds or music on your computer system

Allow listeners to hear sound in multimedia presentations, films, and music.

Important output device for blind people, using screen readers.
Consist of a cone, an iron coil, a magnet, and housing.
The coil creates a magnetic field that causes the cone to vibrate and produce sound waves.
Headphones and earpieces are personal speakers.

Actuators
actuator: a device that causes a machine or other device to operate

A device that moves or controls some mechanism.

Responds to a control signal from the computer and produces a mechanical action.
Used in robots, automatic doors, and car park systems.

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Device Advantages Disadvantages

Forms have to be accurately designed and

OMR Fast and accurate. accurately filled in. The OMR reader can only read
shaded areas.
Fast and accurate as it avoids typing errors and is less expensive Possible difficulty when reading handwriting. Has
OCR
on labour. to be checked for errors.
Saves time when product prices change as only the price data in
Bar code the database will need updating once for each product. Quick and The technology is expensive. Bar codes must be
reader easy to get data into the system. Updates stock control undamaged.
automatically so saves time. Very accurate.
Chip and Secure. Hard to clone. Chips hold more data than magnetic stripes. Security: you may forget your PIN or people may
PIN reader Portable. see what your PIN is as you enter it.
The magnetic stripe can only hold a small amount
Magnetic
Very fast data entry. No data-entry errors as nothing to type in. of data. Cards need to be in physical contact with
stripe
Robust. Cannot be read by human. the reader to work. Data will be lost if the stripe
reader
becomes damaged. Easy to duplicate.
Very versatile. Can contain different types of data. Codes can be
A device is needed to scan the code. Relies on the
easily read by multiple devices, including smartphones. Anyone
QR code being correct. Some people do not know
can create a QR code using software. Quick to read. Stores 100
what they represent or how to read them. You
QR times more information than a bar code. You can store lots of
need a smartphone with a camera and the app
Scanner information on a QR code without having to write it down. QR
installed to be able to read them. QR codes are
codes can be used for anything by anyone. QR codes can be
still relatively new and so not everyone is aware
scanned from any direction making them easier to be read with
of them or what they represent.
less possibility of background interference.
RFID chips do not need to be positioned precisely. They can read RFID tags can be read by anyone with a reader
RFID
chips a few metres away. They can read all of the tags on goods in such as hackers. They can be affected by other
reader
a trolley at once. electrical devices in the area.

Storage Devices and Media

Data Storage Methods

Data is stored in three primary ways: magnetically, optically, and solid-state. The storage medium holds the data, while the
storage device is the machine that writes data to and reads data from the medium. For example, a CD-RW disk is the medium,
while the CD-RW drive is the storage device.

Magnetic Storage
Magnetic storage media store data magnetically, using tiny magnetized regions to represent bits (0s and 1s). Examples include
hard disk drives and magnetic tape.

Magnetic storage media: Media that stores data magnetically by using local magnetic polarity to represent binary
code.

Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)

Hard disk drives (HDDs) contain individual disks with a read/write head for each disk. Data is stored on concentric circles called
tracks, which are further divided into sectors. A file allocation table (FAT) records the location and sequential order of each part
of a file. HDDs can be fixed (permanently connected) or portable (connected via USB).

Hard disk drive: A non-volatile memory hardware device that stores data on magnetic disks. File allocation table
(FAT): Maps the locations in which files and folders are stored on the disk. Fixed hard disk drives: Drives permanently
connected to the computer and are contained within the cases of both desktop and laptop computers. They are built
in. Portable hard disk drives: Contained within their own cases and are separate from main computer systems to
which they are connected by cable.

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Advantages of HDDs:

Large storage capacity

Random access (direct access) via FAT
Low cost

Disadvantages of HDDs:

Susceptible to physical damage

Slower read/write speeds compared to SSDs
Can be noisy

Advantages of Portable HDDs:

Easy file sharing between PCs

Scheduled automatic backups
Quick data archiving

Disadvantages of Portable HDDs:

Risk of damage during movement

Security risk (loss or theft)

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes store data in a long line, similar to magnetic disks, but data is accessed serially. Magnetic tape drives move the
tape past the read/write heads. While HDDs use random access, magnetic tapes use serial access, meaning data must be read
in order.

Magnetic tape: Stores data in a long line on magnetic tape and read by a magnetic tape drive. Serial storage: Data
stored in a line on a tape so it has to be read in order. Magnetic tape drive: A device for collecting, backing up and
archiving data on magnetic tape.

Sequential Storage

Arranging data in a specific order (e.g., alphabetical) on a magnetic tape enables faster access compared to serial storage, as the
device can fast-forward through unwanted sections.

Sequential storage: Data arranged and stored in a particular order, for example, alphabetical order or date order.

Uses of Magnetic Tapes:

Storing large amounts of data where speed is not critical

Backups
Archives (national archives, movies, banking, science)

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes:

Energy efficient (low power consumption when stored)

Reliable (low error rates)
Secure (built-in encryption, resistant to cyber-attacks when not connected)
Low cost
Long durability

Optical Storage
Optical storage media use lasers to read and write data.

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Optical storage media: Media that store data on their surface that can be read using a light source (usually a laser).
Optical storage device: A device that writes data to or reads data from optical media using laser light.

CDs and DVDs

Digital data is stored on CDs and DVDs by etching pits onto the disk surface with a laser. The areas between pits are called
lands. The laser light reflects off the lands and is scattered by the pits, representing 1s and 0s, respectively.

Compact disk (CD): A plastic coated disc on which (usually) music digital information is written and read using a
laser. Digital versatile disk (DVD): A plastic coated disc on which digital information is written and read using a laser.
Can store more data than a compact disk

CD-R and DVD-R

CD-Rs and DVD-Rs have a dye layer that is burned by a laser to create non-reflective spots, representing data.

CD-Rs and DVD-Rs: Blank CDs and DVDs which can be written to once only.

CD-ROM and DVD-ROM

CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are read-only, making them ideal for distributing music, movies, software, and reference materials.

CD ROMs and DVD ROMs: CDs and DVDs that are read only.

CD-RW and DVD-RW

CD-RWs and DVD-RWs use a metallic alloy layer that can switch between reflective and non-reflective states, allowing data to
be written and rewritten multiple times.

CD-RWs and DVD-RWs: CDs and DVDs on which data can be written, erased and re-recorded.

Optical Media Types and Capacities:

Optical Media Storage Capacity

Compact Disks (CDs) 700 MB

Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs) 4.7 GB
Blu-ray Disks 128 GB

Advantages of Optical Disks:

Cheap
Easy to transport
Suitable for distributing programs and files
Ideal for data backup

Disadvantages of Optical Disks:

Lower storage capacity compared to HDDs

Slower access speeds
Data degradation over time

Blu-ray Disks
Blu-ray disks use a blue/violet laser, allowing for greater data density and larger storage capacities compared to DVDs. They are
suitable for recording and playing back high-definition video.

Blu-ray disk: A plastic coated disc on which music digital information is written and read using a laser. Can store more
data than a DVD.

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️Solid-State Drives (SSDs)

Solid-state storage media use flash memory, which is faster than traditional HDDs. Flash memory consists of floating gate
transistors that retain their charge even when power is off.

Solid-state drive (SSD): A mass storage device similar to a hard drive but it doesn’t have any moving parts and data
is stored using flash memory. Flash memory: A non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data
between digital devices. It has the ability to be electronically reprogrammed and erased. Floating gate transistors:
Transistors that keep their charge when the power is switched off. Solid-state storage media: A method of storing
data electronically. It has no moving parts

Advantages of SSDs:
Very fast access speeds
Small, light, and easily portable
Quiet operation
No moving parts, reducing the risk of damage and data loss

Disadvantages of SSDs:
More expensive than HDDs

Types of Solid-State Storage:

Solid-state drives (SSDs)
Memory sticks (pen drives, thumb drives, flash drives)
Flash memory cards (CF cards, SD cards)

Pen Drives and Flash Memory Cards

Pen drives (also known as memory sticks or flash drives) are small, pen-shaped devices that plug into a USB port. Flash
memory cards (such as CF and SD cards) are flat, card-shaped devices that slot into a special port. These are commonly used in
devices like digital cameras, mobile phones, and MP3 players.

Data Storage

Storage Media and Devices

Storage media holds data for storage devices to write and read. The three main types are magnetic, optical, and solid-state.
Storage devices use these mediums to retain information.

Magnetic Storage
Data is written to and read from magnetic media using electromagnets.

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Examples:

Hard disk drives

Magnetic tapes

Advantages

Very large capacity.

Very reliable.
Very low cost.

Disadvantages

Not very portable as physical knocks may cause the read-write heads to hit the disks and corrupt data.
Affected by magnetic fields.

Optical Storage
Optical drives use a laser to write and read data by creating areas that reflect light and areas that do not.

Examples:

CDs

DVDs

Blu-ray Discs

ROM disks are read-only

R disks can be written to once

RW disks can be written to many times

*Advantages * More portable than a hard disk drive but disks are relatively large. * Very reliable if not scratched. * Very low cost
*Disadvantages * Slow. * Easily scratched and data can be damaged. * Data cannot be overwritten.

Solid-State Storage
Solid-state storage devices use flash memory and have no moving parts, commonly found in laptops and new computers as
replacements for traditional hard drives. Flash memory cards are a type of portable memory.

Examples:
Memory sticks/pen drives are small solid-state drives with significant storage.

*Advantages * Very fast. * Very portable. Small solid-state storage devices can be fitted inside cameras and mobile phones. *
Very reliable and not affected by magnetic fields. *Disadvantages * Storage capacity is usually less than hard disk drives. * Lower
durability than a hard disk drive. * More expensive but becoming cheaper. * Cards may be affected by electronic corruption which
can make the entire card unreadable. * Limited number of erase/write cycles.

Comparison of Storage Media

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Magnetic Optical Solid-state

Very large. 1-2 TB common in home Compact disks (CDs) typically

Capacity Solid-state drives are usually about 1 TB.
computers. store 700 MB.
Digital versatile disks (DVDs)
typically store 4.7 GB.
Blu-ray disks typically store
128 GB.
Speed Fast Slow Very fast
Not very portable as physical knocks may More portable than a hard disk Very portable. Small solid-state storage
Portability cause the read-write heads to hit the disks drive but disks are relatively devices can be fitted inside cameras and
and corrupt data. large. mobile phones.
Easily scratched and data can Lower than a hard disk drive. Limited
Durability Very durable.
be damaged. number of erase/ write cycles.
Data cannot be overwritten.
Very reliable but affected by magnetic Very reliable and not affected by
Reliability Very reliable if not scratched.
fields. magnetic fields.
Cost Very low. Very low. More expensive but becoming cheaper.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is non-volatile. Memory sticks/pen drives are small solid-state drives, with a lot of storage space. Flash memory
cards are portable memory.

Flash Memory Cards

Flash memory cards are similar to memory sticks but are flat and card-shaped.

Types:
SD (secure digital) cards (4–32 GB)
Micro SD cards (4–32 GB)
SDXC (extended capacity) cards (2 TB)

Flash Drives and Memory Cards: Advantages

Can act as security for a computer (USB flash drives).
Have non-volatile memory.
Are solid-state.
Are small, light, and compact.
Need very little power.
Available in many sizes.
Can be used in different devices.

Flash Drives and Memory Cards: Disadvantages

Storage capacity is usually less than hard disk drives.
Limited number of erase/write cycles.
Can break easily.
Can be lost, misplaced, or smashed.
Cards may be affected by electronic corruption.

Blu-Ray

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Blu-ray disks offer a high level of interactivity, allowing users to connect to the internet and download subtitles or other
interactive movie features. Blu-ray optical storage media allows very high capacity storage by using a blue/violet laser light. Data
is written to a DVD by laser.

Networking

Networks
A network connects computers and other digital devices, allowing them to share data and resources. Networks enable:

Computer-to-computer communication.
Computers communicating with devices.
Mobile phone networks.
Smart televisions.
Tablets and media players downloading and playing content through external devices.

Computers and devices connecting to a network must follow sets of rules (protocols) to understand each other.

Network Types
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network (LAN): A network used for data transmission by computing devices within one building or site,
such as an office, school, or university campus.

LANs are useful for sharing files, printers, games, and software applications.

Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that connects separate LANs over a large geographical area.

A WAN connects cities, countries, or many countries, ensuring computers in different locations can communicate. The internet is a
huge wide area network.

Wired vs. Wireless Connections

Devices can connect to a network via:

Cables
Radio waves (Wireless LAN or WLAN)

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): A local area network accessed using radio wave communications.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi: A digital communications protocol that sets out how data is transmitted on wireless LANs.

To access a network via Wi-Fi, each device must connect to a wireless access point.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth: Protocols for short-range wireless interconnection of mobile phones, computers, and other electronic
devices.

Bluetooth is a wireless protocol for short-range communication, typically up to 30 feet, used to link personal devices and share
data.

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Wi-Fi vs. Bluetooth

Wi-Fi Bluetooth

Communication Using radio waves. Using radio waves.

Range Up to 100 meters. Has a range of 10 meters.
Direct Communication Devices cannot communicate directly. Devices can communicate directly.
Number of Users Supported Many users can be supported. Fewer users can be supported.
Security Level A high level of security. A lower level of security.
Data Transfer Speed Fast data transfer. Low data transfer.

Tethering
Tethering is the linking of one device to another to connect to the internet. For example, using a smartphone to connect a tablet
to the internet.

Ethernet
Computers communicating through cables in a LAN usually use a set of rules called Ethernet.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Network Interface Card (NIC): A component that connects a computer to a network, formatting data according to
network protocols for transmission.

Also known as a network adapter, the NIC supports both wired and wireless connections. Every NIC is created with a hardware
number permanently ‘burned’ into it. This permanent hardware number is known as the MAC (media access contr ol) address.

Media Access Control (MAC) address: a serial number that is unique to each device and is used to identify it on a
network

Common Network Devices

Hubs
Hub: A device used for connecting computers to form a network. It broadcasts data to all devices, not just the one
they are intended for.

Hubs work by:

All computers plug into a port on the hub using a cable.

When a message is received, the hub transmits it to all other computers.

Hubs are "dumb" because they cannot learn the addresses of different devices and transmit messages to all devices, creating
unnecessary network traffic. Because the hub transmits every message to every part of the network and not just to the
computer it is intended for, there are a lot of unnecessary transmissions or network traffic. Due to this, hubs are rarely used
today.

Network Traffic: The overall network usage caused by all of the data that is being transmitted at a given time.

Switches
Network Switch: A device used for connecting computers to form a network. It transmits data only to the device for
which it is intended

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A network switch handles messages more intelligently than a hub by inspecting the MAC address of the device to which
messages should be sent. Switches are more efficient and secure than hubs.

Bridges
A bridge connects different segments of a LAN, preventing transmissions from one segment from reaching others, thus
improving network security by isolating segments.

Routers
Routers direct data to the correct network, essential for WANs like the internet. Routers connect home networks to the internet
and transmit incoming data to the correct computer on the network.

When devices transmit data across the internet, the data is broken down into small pieces called data packets. These are sent
separately and then joined up at the end so that the message is complete.

While switches allow different devices on a network to communicate, routers allow different networks to communicate.

Network Functions and Devices

Hubs vs. Network Switches

Network switches are similar to hubs, but they intelligently read messages.
They identify the destination addresses and send data only to the intended computers.
Switches maintain a table of MAC addresses to achieve this.
This targeted approach reduces unnecessary network traffic, boosting network performance.
Switches can simultaneously send and receive data, making them faster than hubs.

Bridges
Bridges connect different network segments.
Example: Joining a bus network to a star network.

Key Packet Components

Switches work by breaking down network communications into packets.

Header: Contains the source and destination addresses, as well as the packet's position within the complete message or
file.
Body (Payload): The actual data that is being transmitted.
Footer (Trailer): Indicates the end of the packet and is used for error checking to ensure the packet was delivered correctly.

Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching

Packet switching: Data is broken into packets and sent independently across the network.
Packets may take different routes and arrive out of order, but are reassembled at the destination due to labeling.
More efficient as it doesn't require a dedicated line.
Circuit switching: Establishes a dedicated line between two communicating devices.
Example: A landline telephone call.

Packet switching: when certain areas of the network are too busy to carry the packets, they are automatically
switched to emptier circuits

Routers and Routing Tables

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Router: A device that transmits data between networks.

Each router uses a routing table to determine the best path for data.
The routing table lists routes to other networks on the WAN.
If a direct connection isn't possible, the router forwards the packet to other networks along the route.

A routing table is a database that keeps track of paths, like a map, and uses these to determine which way to forward
traffic.

Routers balance network load dynamically.

Packets can be rerouted if there's a network problem.

IP Addresses
An IP address is a set of numbers used to identify one particular computer on the internet.

An IP address is like a postal address for computers on a network.

It ensures data and messages are sent to the correct computer.
Consists of a series of numbers (e.g., 216.27.61.137).

How Data Packets Traverse the Internet

1. The sending computer splits the file into packets and addresses them with the recipient’s IP address.
Files are split because large file transmissions would consume too much bandwidth.
2. Packets are sent over the network via cables or radio waves.
3. Routers inspect each packet to determine the best path for the next stage of its journey.
4. Each router has a configuration table with information about connections leading to specific address groups.
5. The final router directs the packet to the correct recipient.

Internet, Intranet, and Extranet

Feature Intranet Extranet Internet

Private network within an

Extension of an intranet, allowing access to Global network of interconnected
Definition organization using internet
external parties. computer networks.
technology.
Restricted to members of the Granted to specific external parties (e.g.,
Access Open to all users worldwide.
organization. customers, partners).
Information retrieval,
Internal communications, sharing Sharing information with partners, customers,
Purpose communications, marketing, sales,
company information. or other organizations.
banking.
Internal web pages, newsletters, Controlled access to specific resources and Access to a vast range of web
Content
policies, training information. information. pages.
Protocols TCP/IP. TCP/IP. TCP/IP.
Hospital intranet accessible to community
School or business network for Global communication accessed
Examples doctors, manufacturing company allowing
employees. through the web.
supplier access.
High, access restricted to internal Medium, access limited to approved external
Security Variable, accessible to anyone.
members. users.

intranet: a communication system, solely within a particular company or organisation

extranet: a communication system for a particular company or organisation that can be accessed from the internet by
other parties or organisations who have been granted access. It is an extension of an intranet

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Set of rules or protocols used by devices to connect and
communicate over the internet.

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Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is the delivery of computer services over the internet.

Services such as software and storage are housed on remote servers.

Advantages for Business

Lower maintenance costs: No need to install, maintain, or upgrade software on local computers or servers.
Software as a Service (SaaS): Pay only for what you use, avoiding the need to buy software licenses.
Automatic upgrades: All software is automatically updated.
Remote access: Employees can work from anywhere with internet access, reducing the need for office space.
Automatic data backup: Data is automatically backed up at a remote site.
Collaboration: Employees can collaborate on the same documents.

Disadvantages for Business

Requires internet access.
Less control; reliant on providers for maintenance and updates.
Servers may be targeted by hackers.

Cloud Storage
Cloud storage: the storage of digital data on remote servers

Often used for backing up and archiving data.

Data centers consume vast amounts of energy.

Advantages

Advantage Description

Data security Data is secure in case of fire or site problems.

Accessibility Data can be accessed from anywhere with an internet connection.
Cost-effective No need to buy expensive storage devices; pay-as-you-go model.
Collaboration Many users can access and collaborate on data from anywhere.
Automatic Backup Data is automatically backed up, reducing risk of data loss.

Disadvantages

Disadvantage Description

Internet Dependency Requires an internet connection.

Speed Limitations Download and upload speeds can be affected by the internet connection.
Security Risks Hosting company could be targeted by online hackers.
Reduced Control Less control over data held by another company.
Data Protection Breaches Storing data online may breach data protection acts if not kept secure and confidential.

Network Security
Hack: to gain unauthorized access to data in a system or computer

Encryption
Encryption: the process of turning information (e.g. a message) into a form that only the intended recipient can decrypt
and read

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Scrambling data to prevent unauthorized access.

Firewalls
Firewall: software or hardware devices that protect against unauthorized access to a network

Protect against unauthorized access.

Can prevent communications from entering the network or programs from accessing the internet.
Inspect incoming packets and reject those from untrusted IP addresses.

Passwords
Password: a secret word or phrase that must be used to gain admission to a place

Should be unpredictable.

Strong Passwords

Strong password: a password that is difficult to detect by both humans and computer programs

At least eight characters long.

Include numbers, upper and lowercase letters, and special characters (!, $, ?, etc.).
Avoid user-identifiable information.
Change passwords regularly.
Never reuse or share passwords.

Authentication
Authentication: the process or action of proving or showing something to be true, genuine or valid

Verifying the identity of someone logging into the network.

Asymmetric Encryption
Uses a public key to encrypt messages and a private key to decrypt them.

Biometric Methods
Biometric data: records that are used to identify people by a physical attribute that doesn’t change.

Biometric methods: technologies that analyze unique personal characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas and
irises, voice and facial patterns, and hand measurements as a form of identification

Use biological measurements to identify individuals.

Physiological: Relates to physical aspects (fingerprint, retina scan).
Behavioral: Includes signatures, handwriting, and voice patterns.
Verification: Confirming a person is who they claim to be.
Identification: Identifying a person within a group.
Screening: Matching a person against a watch list.

Smart Cards
Smart card: a plastic card with a built-in processor

Contain a computer chip for data transfer.

Contact: Requires physical contact with a reader.
Contactless: Transmits data via radio waves.

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Magnetic Stripes
Data encoded on a magnetic stripe can be swiped through a reader.

Physical Tokens
physical token: a personal device that authenticates a person’s identity

Devices that authenticate identity.

Electronic Tokens
Used for electronic payments by converting credit card numbers to random characters.

Malware and Anti-Malware

Malware
Malware is short for malicious software. It's designed to infiltrate computers without user consent, aiming to disrupt or damage
the system. This includes any software crafted to:

Disrupt computer functions

Gain unauthorized system access

Malware: software designed to gain unauthorized access to a computer system in order to disrupt its functioning or
collect information without the user’s knowledge.

Types of malware include:

Virus
Worm
Trojan (or Trojan horse)
Spyware
Adware
Type of
Description
malware

A computer program hidden within another program or file. It replicates itself, inserting itself into other programs or
Virus files, often spread by users to other computers. Viruses commonly have a harmful effect, like corrupting or deleting
data.
Worm Unlike a virus:
* It exists independently, not needing another program or file to exist.
* It spreads without human action, traveling to other computers through networks or self-sending via emails to
contacts.
As a worm duplicates itself extensively, it consumes computer resources, slowing down other programs.
A Trojan does not replicate or attach itself to other files. It must be installed by a computer user who thinks they are
installing legitimate software or by opening an email attachment (that is why they are called Trojan horses). Trojans
Trojan
can just be annoying, e.g. by changing the desktop and adding new icons. They can also be malicious, e.g. by
deleting files and destroying system information.
'Spies' on a computer, transmitting information to a criminal. Often bundled with other software (e.g., free
Spyware
downloads), unbeknownst to the user.
Adware Programs designed to:
* Display advertisements on a computer
* Redirect search requests to advertising sites
* Collect marketing data about users (like browsing habits) to tailor advertisements. When done without user
consent, it's considered malware. Can also refer to free programs containing ads, with options to remove ads via
registration and payment.

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Anti-Malware Software
Anti-malware software is designed to combat malware effects and prevent its installation. It should be installed to protect
systems from malware infiltration and infection. The software functions by:

Detecting malware
Safely removing malware
Repairing malware damage

Anti-malware software: software used to prevent, detect and neutralise malware.

To prevent infection, take these security measures:

Install a firewall to prevent unauthorized software downloads.

Install and regularly update anti-malware and anti-virus software.
Scan all storage media to detect, destroy, or quarantine malware.
Ensure the operating system is up to date.
Install the latest security updates.
Install anti-spyware protection software that removes or blocks spyware.
Avoid opening emails and attachments from unknown sources.
Scan all data files as they are downloaded.
Only download programs from trusted websites and ensure that the anti-malware software scans all downloads.
Read all security warnings, licence agreements and privacy statements.
Never click ‘Agree’ or ‘OK’ to close a window. Instead, click the red ‘X’ in the corner of the window.
Be wary of popular ‘free’ music and movie file-sharing programs.

Quarantine: Placing suspected malware in a specific storage area, isolating it from other programs.

Quarantine: the placing of suspected malware into a specific area of a storage device

Zero Login
Some companies are testing authentication based on user behavior rather than passwords or biometrics.

With zero login, users are authenticated by their behavior, such as:

Phone tapping pressure

Typing speed
Walking motion detected by phone sensors

Merchants can't decode a token; converting it back to a card number requires military-grade security encryption keys.

Zero login: a method of authentication not requiring a user to login. They are authenticated by their behaviour and the
way they do things.

Video-conferencing and Web-conferencing

Electronic Conferencing
Electronic conferencing involves meetings among individuals in different locations using communication technology.

Audio-Conferencing
Audio-conferencing connects people in different locations via technology for verbal communication. Unlike phone calls,
participants dial into a central system.

Audio-conference: people in different locations use technology to speak to each other Electronic-conference: a
meeting between individuals who are not in the same room or location using communications technology

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Web-Conferencing vs. Video-Conferencing

The term web-conferencing is often used interchangeably with video-conferencing.

Web-conferencing takes place online over public internet and enables multiple participants to connect and work together
visually using their laptops or mobile devices.

Video-conferencing uses specialized, high-quality equipment for visual and audio communication.

Video-conference: a meeting where people at different locations can see and talk to each other while sitting in front of
a camera and a microphone Web-conference: a live meeting held via the internet usually on a computer or
smartphone

Webcasts and Webinars

Webcasts: One-way, non-interactive transmissions where a host presents information via audio/video streams, potentially
using screen sharing.

Webcast: a one-way transmission which is non-interactive.

Webinars: Teaching sessions online where participants can see and hear the presenter, as well as ask and answer
questions.

Webinar: teaching session or other presentation that takes places on the internet, allowing participants in different
locations to see and hear the presenter and ask and answer questions

Web-conferencing also includes:

Never click ‘Agree’ or ‘OK’ to close a window. Instead, click the red ‘X’ in the corner of the window.
Be wary of popular ‘free’ music and movie file-sharing programs.

Equipment for Video and Web Conferencing

Web-conferencing:

Microphone
Speakers or headphones
Video camera (if visual)
Display screen or monitor
Internet connection
Web-conferencing software

Video-conferencing:

Similar hardware, but higher quality, with individual components.

Dedicated room with a large monitor and central camera/speakers.
Conducted over private lines or secure internet connections.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Video- and Web-Conferencing

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Advantages Disadvantages

Enables colleagues to connect without travel, saving time Interaction and communication are not as effective as face-to-face
and money. meetings.
Allows quick meeting organization for emergencies, faster Hardware and software can be expensive, though web-conferencing
than face-to-face meetings. is often free for small groups.
Facilitates non-verbal communication, as participants can
Relies on hardware/software, which can malfunction.
see each other.
Supports presentation sharing and document collaboration,
Camera view may limit visibility of all participants.
unlike phone calls.
Allows remote work, reducing office space and commuting Participants may need to work during unsocial hours due to time
costs. zone differences.
Encourages continuous collaboration.
Uses mobile devices with built-in hardware.

Video-Conferencing vs. Web-Conferencing

Video-conferencing Web-conferencing

Offers better quality video and audio. Provides less quality video and audio.
Shows entire groups at one location via high-quality cameras. Shows individuals via webcam.
Operates using dedicated software, reducing errors and distortion. Requires the internet and a web browser.
Doesn't require participants to use their own computers; systems use their own
hardware and large screens. This allows for more natural interaction. Web-
conferencing requires the use of a web browser on a computer.
Often used for one-way communication like
Always interactive, allowing contributions from all participants. webcasts or webinars, though these allow
some interaction.

Microprocessor-Controlled Devices

Microprocessors and the Internet of Things (IoT)

Microprocessors are small, programmable processors inside computers that process digital data and instructions to produce
output.

Microprocessor: an electronic circuit or chip that makes the computer or electronic device work by processing data,
performing calculations and issuing instructions based on the results

The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the interconnection of computing devices embedded in everyday objects, enabling them
to send and receive data without human interaction.

Internet of things (IOT): the interconnection via the internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects,
enabling them to send and receive data

To use smart devices in a home, a user will require the hardware to create a Wi-Fi network and software apps to control them.

Smart device: as the name suggests, an electronic gadget that is able to connect, share and interact with its user and
other smart devices

Positive and Negative Effects of Smart Devices

Positive Effects:

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Smart speakers facilitate voice commands to adjust temperature or create shopping lists.
Smart thermostats reduce energy consumption.
Smart devices create more leisure time by automating everyday tasks.
Smart devices can be used to monitor heart rate and the amount and quality of sleep.
Fitness trackers track physical activity such as the number of steps taken, stairs climbed, the pace and length of a run,
including the use of GPS. They can also record workouts, bike rides and other physical activities.
Apps are available for users of smart training equipment, such as running machines or static cycles, to allow them to
compete with others in real time and so increasing motivation.
They can calculate the number of calories a person is burning and number of calories a person has eaten. Smart devices can
help improve our fitness in several ways.

Negative Effects:

Smart devices are expensive.

They depend on a reliable internet connection, which may fail.
Security risks exist due to potential hacking.
Over-reliance on smart devices could have detrimental effects.
The use of digital devices has affected how people use their leisure time. In the past, listening to the radio or watching
television was a group affair but now they can be done individually.

Health Issues and Ergonomics

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) is a widespread health hazard among computer workers and the most severe injuries mean that
people may have to be away from work for months, or possibly have a permanent disability.

RSI is part of a group of 100 injury types known as musculoskeletal disorders.

Musculoskeletal disorders make up approximately 30 percent of all injuries in the workplace that result in loss of workdays
through employees’ absence.

Approximately 60 percent of office workers using a computer all day suffer from wrist pain while at the computer.
Around 50 percent of computer workers say that they feel their keyboards are too high.

Recommendations:

Take short, regular breaks from their computers, or that their employer won’t let them.

Good Posture and Equipment

Wrist in a neutral (straight) posture
Table height ≈ elbow height
Elbows bent at 90º, forearms horizontal
Shoulders should be relaxed, not raised
Thighs horizontal with a 90º–110º angle at the hip
Backrest should support the natural curve of the lower back
Head upright and over your shoulders
Eyes looking slightly downward without bending from the neck
Feet supported and flat on the floor. If this isn’t possible, then feet should be fully supported by a foot rest

Smart Devices: Impact and Implications

Lifestyle and Leisure

Increased individual device usage can lead to less family interaction.
More leisure time is spent indoors with digital devices rather than engaging in physical activities outdoors.

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Home Automation
Home CCTV systems allow remote monitoring via smartphones.
Smart fridges can automatically update shopping lists.
Smart utility meters monitor usage and allow remote thermostat adjustments.

Enhanced Security and Care

Smart baby monitors track breathing, temperature, and movement, reporting to smartphones.
Elderly care monitors use sensors to detect falls and alert carers remotely.

Data Security Concerns

Smart devices gather personal information, raising privacy concerns.
Increased awareness of data security is driving action.
The Internet of Things (IoT) devices can be exploited for DDoS attacks.

Health and Fitness

Apps can monitor physical conditions and suggest corrective actions.
Wearable devices can transmit data to apps, suggesting posture modifications or delivering medication (e.g., for smoking
cessation).

Social Interaction
Smart devices save time but may reduce social interaction.
Online shopping reduces the need for face-to-face interactions.

Transport
Microprocessor-controlled systems are used in modern vehicles for engine management, improving fuel consumption and
reducing pollution.

Intelligent transport systems use sensors to monitor traffic and improve safety.

Intelligent transport system: The use of communications devices, computers, control, and sensing devices to
improve the safety and efficiency of traffic movement through transmitting real-time information.

Collision avoidance systems warn of obstacles and apply brakes if necessary.

Autonomous Vehicles
Autonomous vehicles can operate without human involvement.

Autonomous vehicle: A vehicle capable of sensing its environment and operating without human involvement.

Ethical dilemmas arise regarding safety decisions in autonomous vehicles.

Security is a concern, as user journey data could be misused.

Intelligent Transport System Benefits

Improved traffic efficiency.
Reduced travel time.
Enhanced safety and comfort.

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Potential Drawbacks
Expensive to implement and maintain.
Relies on surveillance, potentially infringing on privacy.
Vulnerable to hackers who could take control of traffic systems and vehicles.

Health and Safety Issues

Reducing Risks
Sensible precautions must be taken to reduce health risks associated with computer use.

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)

A general term used to describe the pain felt in muscles, nerves, and tendons caused by repetitive movement and
overuse.

Issue Prevention Strategies

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI): Pain in muscles, nerves, and tendons due to repetitive
* Adopt a good posture.
movement and overuse.
* Use an ergonomically designed
keyboard.
* Take regular breaks.
* Minimize mouse use with keyboard
shortcuts.
* Use a wrist support or ergonomic
mouse.

Back Problems

Issue Prevention Strategies

Back Pain: Caused by prolonged sitting and bad posture. * Adjust the chair to suit body type and height.
* Adjust the height and angle of the screen.
* Use a chair with lumbar support.
* Adjust the desk for proximity.
Back Injuries: Caused by moving heavy computer hardware. * Use correct lifting techniques.
* Reduce twisting, stooping, and reaching.
* Plan the lift to reduce the distance.
* Avoid lifting from floor level or above shoulder height.
* Ask for help.

Eye Strain

Issue Prevention Strategies

Eye Strain: Headaches, watery eyes, dry eyes, and double vision from
* Take regular breaks.
staring at a screen.
* Adjust the brightness and contrast of the monitor.
* Use suitable font and icon sizes.
* Use suitable lighting in the room, avoiding sunlight on
the screen.

Headaches

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Issue Prevention Strategies

Headaches: Often caused by CVS. * Take frequent breaks.

* Work in a properly lit area.
* Reduce screen glare.
* Clean the computer display.
* Keep hardware and software updated.
* Ask for software training.

Stress

Issue Prevention Strategies

Stress: Caused by computer malfunctions, software issues, rushing. * Ask colleagues for help.
* Admit if it is too much.

General Tips for Computer Use

Take regular breaks away from the screen.
Adjust chair so feet are flat on the ground or use a foot rest.
Adjust chair to suit body type, change height of the chair, adjust the lumbar support.
Take regular breaks to help relieve stress.
Use wrist rests to support hands.

Online Shopping with a Little Chaos!

Amazon's success is attributed to its fast delivery times.
Amazon uses a system of bar coding to identify items and locations in its warehouses.
Items are placed on shelves at random, and bar codes are used to track their locations.

Communication

Newsletters
Used to give updates on progress and new developments.
Can be a single sheet or many pages long.
Word processing and desktop publishing software allows for sophisticated newsletters.
Features include:
Using columns
Altering the margins and the spacing
Changing the character size
Using different typefaces (fonts), like Arial or Courier
Different effects, like italic, bold, and superscripts
Indenting text
Automated bullet points and numbering systems
Justification of text
Inserting links
Use of headers, footers, automatic page numbering

Newsletter: news, updates, and information issued periodically to the members of a society or other organization.

Posters
Intended to communicate one message rather than being a document containing lots of information on different topics.
Used to advertise products and events.
Contain less text and information than a newsletter.
Have a greater visual element to be eye-catching.

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Poster: a large printed sheet containing text and pictures which is displayed in a public space.

Communication Changes Due to ICT

Traditionally, communication was mainly by letter-writing, written reports, newsletters, telephone, and face-to-face
meetings.
ICT has brought major changes in how we communicate with each other personally and how organizations communicate.
Organizations such as businesses, schools, universities, and clubs produced printed or electronic newsletters for employees,
customers, parents, students, or members.
Branding is important for organizations, so documents can be recognized immediately, using the same logo, font, colors,
and style, known as their 'corporate image' or 'house style'.

Amazon's Warehouse Example

Uses the chaos method of storing goods with complete randomness.
Management software tells workers how many items need to be picked up, where the nearest one is, and the quickest route
to it.
Workers pick up multiple items at once that have been ordered by different people, saving time.
The management system informs workers how many items of stock there are and their location.

Multimedia Presentations
A standalone presentation that uses a mixture of different media such as text, video, audio, and images to present
information effectively and maintain viewer interest.
Changes from one screen to another can use complex transitions to catch attention.
Hyperlinks can be included as part of a single-user presentation to give the user a choice of path through it.
Can be used to:
Accompany a talk by a person.
Run on their own for people to view, e.g., advertising products in shops or explaining exhibits in a museum or
paintings in an art gallery.
Create educational tutorials.
Produce a digital portfolio of a person’s work.
Produce a photo slide show that can be left to run on its own.
Create interactive stories and quizzes.
Create animations.

Multimedia presentation: a presentation that uses a mix of media, for example, text, sound, photos, animations,
videos and interactive content.

Websites
A collection of interactive web pages containing text, graphics, audio, video, and links to other pages.
Hosted on a web server on the internet.
Information can be viewed by internet users using a web browser.
Used to:
Raise the profile of a person or organization.
Communicate with others.
Provide information about an organization.
Advertise an organization or product.
Allow users to upload and download files, e.g., application forms.
Allow users to order products advertised on the website.

Web browser: an application used to access websites on the world wide web

Web page: a document containing text, images, audio, video and links to other pages that can be viewed on a web
browser

Website: a collection of web pages

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Web server: the computer that the website is saved on

Media Streaming
Refers to the continuous transmission of audio or video files to a user.
The file being streamed is stored remotely, and streaming happens in real-time.
No need to wait for the whole file to download to begin watching.
Doesn’t require downloading files and using space on the hard drive.
Used for entertainment, where users can watch films and listen to music stored on remote servers.
Also used by television channels for live events such as football matches.
Requires fast internet speeds for streaming high-quality video.

Media streaming: a method of transmitting or receiving data (especially video and audio material) over a computer
network as a steady, continuous flow, allowing playback to start while the rest of the data is still being received

Live streaming: when streamed video is sent over the inter net in real time, without first being recorded and stored,
e.g. many sporting events are live streamed

Audio and video data is broken down into data packets to be sent over the internet.
Many presenters use audio alone for comedy, storytelling, and providing information through podcasts.
Podcasts are digital audio files that users can download from the internet and listen to on a mobile device such as a
smartphone, typically available as a series with new installments automatically downloading.
Audio communication without video is used when people must concentrate or cannot view a screen, such as when they are
running or exercising.
Information is communicated using audio in shops and railway stations.
Video communication combines moving images and sounds, widely used in education, entertainment, and by organizations
to advertise and promote their products.

E-publications: digital materials published online such as e-books or digital magazines and e-newspapers

Audio communication: any form of transmission that is based on sound, speaking and hearing

Video communication: any form of transmission that is based on moving pictures as well as sound

Podcast: a digital audio file made available on the internet for downloading to a computer or mobile device

E-readers: a device on which you can read e-publications

E-publications
The publishing of digital books, magazines, newsletters, and newspapers online.
Advantages:
They can be shared globally.
There are no printing costs.
It is quicker to get published.
Constant access to your digital library.
E-Readers are often less bulky than books.

Voice over Internet Protocol

Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) allows the use of the internet to carry voice data when making phone calls.
Voice data is broken into packets sent along different routes and reassembled at the destination.
VOIP technology is referred to as packet switching.
VOIP telephony is generally free for the actual calls, with costs only for internet attachment.
VOIP telephony can be between a computer and a landline telephone, not just between two computers or smartphones.
VOIP is also used for video calls over the internet.

Voice over internet protocol (VOIP): allows the use of the internet to carry voice data when making phone calls

Mobile Communication

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Mobile devices can access the internet using either Wi-Fi or a mobile/cellular network.
Cellular network is a wireless network distributed through cells.
Each cell includes a fixed location transceiver known as a base station.
These cells provide wireless coverage over a large geographical area.
Smartphones can be used for voice or phone calls, allowing communication between people.
Handover is the automatic transfer of a user’s connection to another base station as they move out of range.
Cellular technology has improved over the years, with each improvement being called a ‘generation.’
Most people now use third generation (3G) or fourth generation (4G) technology, with 5G soon superseding them in some
areas.
SMS (Short Message Service) allows users to send short text messages to each other.

Base station: a fixed point of communication for cellular phones on a carrier network. The base station has an
antenna (or multiple antennae) that receives and transmits the signals in the cellular network to customer phones and
cellular devices

Handover: the automatic transfer of a user’s connection to a base station to another base station which is near er to
the user

Cell: a geographical area covered by one base station

Short message service (SMS): system where users can send short text messages to each other fr om one mobile
phone to another or from a computer to a mobile phone

3G and 4G: communication protocols used by smartphones to connect to the internet, 4G being much faster than 3G

5G: the 5th generation of wireless technologies for digital cellular networks

Personal Finance
A personal financial model predicts finances into the future, showing expected regular income and expenditure.
Allows users to see how much they should have available at the end of each month.
Can also allow a user to see what would happen if they changed something.

Personal financial model: creating a plan to manage a person’s budget

Modelling Applications
Computer modelling uses mathematical formulae to describe real-life situations.
The model attempts to mirror the rules and mechanisms that control real-life systems.
Spreadsheets are valuable for simple computer modelling.
Specialist modelling software is used for commercial and large-scale models.
Meteorological services use different models such as Seasonal and Climate and Ocean models to predict the weather.

Computer modelling: an attempt to abstract the rules and mechanisms that contr ol real-life systems and apply them
in computer programs so that they can be used to simulate the behavior of those systems

Application Description

Personal Finance Models expected income and expenditure to forecast financial status.
Bridge/Building
Tests structural integrity under various conditions (e.g., weather, traffic) to ensure safety and stability.
Design
Flood Water
Predicts flood patterns and depths to develop hazard maps and plan flood defenses.
Management
Simulates traffic flow to optimize traffic systems, determine traffic light timing, and assess the impact of
Traffic Management
new roads.
Uses detailed atmospheric models to predict weather conditions over the coming weeks or months. Data
Weather Forecasting
includes air movement, heat exchange, air pressure, wind strength, temperature, and moisture.
Supply-chain Software used by organisations for planning the logistics of the transport of materials from all over the
modeling world.

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Reasons for Modelling a Situation

1. To test situations without endangering anybody.
2. To test the situation’s feasibility without spending large sums of money.
3. To simulate behaviors under different conditions.

Mathematical formula: an expression or equation that expresses the relationship between particular quantities.

Simulate: to make something that looks and acts like a real object or situation but isn’t real

Modelling software: programs used to create computer models

Flood Water Management

Models provide predictions of the extent and depth of flooding.
Can be used in the development of accurate hazard maps of a region.
The models can be used to:
Show which vulnerable groups and communities are at risk
Provide real-time flood predictions to inform emergency services
Plan and develop exercises to test response to emergencies
Produce maps of flood and coastal risk
Design schemes to manage flood risk
Consider the long term effects of climate change

Hazard map: a map that highlights areas that are vulnerable to particular adverse conditions

Real-time: as things occur, with no delay.

Traffic Management
Helps determine which type of control to use at road junctions.
Aid decision making about choices.
Helps to determine the amount of time allowed to each road at urban traffic lights.
Allow users to investigate the effects of building new roads, making more streets for pedestrians only or allowing only one-
way traffic.

Traffic modelling: using mathematical and computer simulations of r eal-world traffic situations to ensure optimal
(best or most desirable) traffic flow with minimum traffic jams

Weather forecasting: predicting weather conditions over the next few days

Traffic management: directing vehicles and pedestrians along certain r outes to ensure optimal traffic flow with
minimum traffic jams

Computer-Controlled Systems
A set of devices such as a processor, sensors, and actuators that work together to achieve a set of objectives.

Advantages of Computer-Controlled Systems

Quick to respond to change and process data very quickly.
Can run all day, every day without needing a break.
Can operate in places dangerous to humans.
Can carry out repetitive tasks error-free.
Do not require wages.
Can take account of hundreds of inputs at the same time and still make accurate decisions.

Disadvantages of Computer-Controlled Systems

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The hardware and software can be very expensive to develop.

If there is a power cut, the system will stop.
Cannot react to unexpected events as a human can.
Humans could make errors in their calculations.

Advantages of Computer Modelling

Safety: buildings can be remodeled without humans putting themselves at risk of construction accidents.
Less expensive as new products can be tested without humans having to build physical prototypes.
More situations can be tested: situations impossible for humans to test, as well as dangerous situations can be tested by
modelling.
Faster results: once all the data is in the model, it is much quicker to work out very complicated mathematical equations
than humans would.
Buildings can be perfected using a model before it is constructed which reduces the time, materials and costs of making an
error, or not building to the customer’s specification.

Disadvantages of Computer Modelling

The situations may be too complex to model successfully.
It may be difficult to identify all of the rules correctly.
The model is not reality, so the answers may not be right.
A lot of expense is required to set up the model in the first place.
Human programmers may make errors in inputting the information that the program uses for calculations, so the digital
model may be inaccurate.

Robotics in Manufacture
Robots have a major role in the manufacturing industry.
Main use is to carry out repetitive tasks.
Some can be re-programmed to do different tasks.
Programmers can write instructions, observe the robot while it does the task (teach and learn method), or guide the robot
through a task the first time.

Robot: a machine controlled by a computer that is used to perfor m jobs automatically

Advantages of Using Robots

Increased speed and continuous work.
Reduced labor costs.
Higher product quality.
The ability to carry out work in areas that may be too dangerous, too repetitive, or too physically demanding for humans.

Disadvantages of Robots
Cannot make independent decisions.
Cannot change their actions to accommodate a new situation, although machine learning attempts to change this.
Initial setup costs can be very high.
Workers worry that robots cause unemployment for humans.

Machine learning: the ability of computers to lear n without being explicitly programmed

Robots in Manufacturing and Logistics

Robots in Manufacturing

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Robots are crucial in the manufacturing industry, handling intricate assembly line tasks and even overseeing human workers.
Many robotic arms can execute various functions and switch tools with minimal human intervention.

Production Lines
A production line is used to create an end product from raw materials or other components. Computers control the flow of
materials along the entire production line.

Production line: a line of machines and workers in a factory that a product moves along while it is being produced.
Each machine or worker performs a particular job that must be finished before the product moves to the next position
in the line

Robot Density
The number of robots employed per 10,000 industrial employees varies across countries.

Rank Country Robots per 10,000 Employees

1 Singapore 831
2 Republic of Korea 774
3 Germany 338
4 Japan 327
5 Sweden 247
... USA 217
... China 140

Although China is in 20th position, it is the world’s largest user of industrial robots, installing 154,000 units in 2018. However, it
has far more industrial workers compared to other countries.

Robots in Logistics
The logistics industry benefits from robots as they manage the movement of goods from their source to their destination.
Driverless transport can operate 24 hours a day, eliminating the need for rest time and reducing costs.

Disabled people who cannot drive can also benefit from driverless cars, gaining more mobility and independence.

Autonomous vehicles could potentially be safer because they remove the possibility of human error. Sensors enable
communication between driverless cars, allowing them to travel faster and more safely.

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