Computer Networks

Module 1-Subsection-1

Introduction

By

Dr. Shahana Gajala Qureshi

Introduction
Networking Goals
❑ Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous
(standalone) computers for information exchange. The connecting media
could be a copper wire, optical fiber, microwave, or satellite.
Networking Elements
❑ The computer network includes the following networking elements:
1. At least two computers
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4. Network software such as Network Operating System
Network Criteria
❑ The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:
1. Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.
➢Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
➢Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Performance is dependent on the following factors:
❖The number of users
❖Type of transmission medium
Introduction
❖Capability of connected network
❖Efficiency of software
❖Bandwidth
❖Network topology
❖Network protocols
❖Distance
❖Network congestion, and hardware
2. Reliability – It is measured in terms of
❖Frequency of failure
❖Recovery from failures
❖Robustness during catastrophe
❖Quality of service (QoS)
❖Reducing single points of failure
❖Capacity planning
❖Network architecture
3. Security – It means protecting data from unauthorized access.
4. Network topology- it is another crucial factor to consider when
designing a computer network.
Introduction
❖ It refers to the way in which computers, devices, and links are arranged in a
network.
❖ Common topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid, each with its
own advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, scalability, reliability, and
performance.
❖The choice of topology depends on the specific needs and constraints of the
network. Other important criteria that must be met by a computer network
include performance, reliability, and security.
Goals of Computer Networks
The following are some important goals of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing – Many organization has a substantial number of
computers in operations, which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers
can share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.
2. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be
replicated on two or more machines. If one of them is not available, due to
hardware failure, the other copies could be used.
3. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically
apart, may converse in an interactive session through the network. In order to
permit this, the network must provide almost error-free communications.
4. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network.
The project can be begun on one computer and finished on another.
Introduction
5.Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against
unauthorized access, data breaches, and other security threats. This includes
implementing measures such as firewalls, antivirus software, and encryption to
ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
6. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and low
latency to ensure that applications and services are responsive and available
when needed. This requires optimizing network infrastructure, bandwidth
utilization, and traffic management.
7. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as
needed to accommodate changes in the number of users, devices, and data
traffic.
Advantages
1. Resource sharing: Networks enable the sharing of resources such as
printers, scanners, storage devices, and software applications, which can reduce
costs and increase efficiency.
2. Communication and collaboration: Networks provide a platform for
communication and collaboration among users, allowing for easy sharing of
information and ideas.
3. Centralized management: Networks allow for centralized management of
devices, users, and resources, making it easier to control and monitor the
network.
Introduction
4. Scalability: Networks can be scaled up or down to accommodate changes in
the number of users, devices, or data volume.
5. Accessibility: Networks can provide remote access to resources, enabling
users to work from anywhere and improving accessibility to information and
resources.
Disadvantages
1. Security vulnerabilities: Networks can be vulnerable to security threats
such as hacking, viruses, and malware, which can compromise sensitive data and
disrupt network operations.
2. Complexity: Networks can be complex to set up, configure, and maintain,
requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
3. Dependence on infrastructure: Networks depend on the underlying
infrastructure such as cables, routers, switches, and servers, which can be prone
to failures or downtime, disrupting network operations.
4. Cost: Networks can be expensive to set up and maintain, requiring
investments in hardware, software, and personnel.
5. Performance limitations: Networks have performance limitations such as
bandwidth constraints, latency, and congestion, which can affect the speed and
reliability of network operations.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
❑When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local
or remote.
❑ Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while
remote communication takes place over distance.
❑ The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and
television, means communication at a distance.
❑ Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
❑The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must
be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3.Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
4. Jitter (variation in time delay ): Jitter in Internet Protocol (IP) networks
is the variation in the latency on a packet flow between two systems when some
packets take longer to travel from one system to the other. Jitter results from
network congestion, timing drift and route changes.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
A data communications system has five components:
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Data Representation
❑Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and
video.
Data Flow
❑Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Simplex
❑In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Ex: An example of Simplex Communication would be a radio station broadcasting
their program to their listeners.
Half-Duplex
❑ In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. : When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.
❑The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.
Ex:A common example of half-duplex communication is the use of walkie-talkies.
Full-Duplex
❑ In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
❑The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.
Ex: The most familiar example of a full-duplex communication channel is Telephone,
where both participants in a call can send and receive audio simultaneously.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Networking Topology

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link

to every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries
traffic only between the two devices it connects.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Star: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
❑ The devices are not directly linked to one another.
❑ Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices.
❑A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Bus Topology: The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections.
A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in a network.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Bus Topology: The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections.
A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in a network.
❑Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector
that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to
create a contact with the metallic core.
❑ When one computer sends a signal up the cable, all the computers on the
network receive the information. Still, the message is accepted by only that
computer whose address is specified in the message's address field, and the rest
of the nodes reject the message.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side of it.
❑A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination.
❑ Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along.
❑ Some ring networks in ring topology do token passing. Every computer in the
ring receives the token in sequence.
❑ Each node in a ring topology has a repeater regenerates the bits and signal in a
network when a particular device receives the signal intended for another device.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Tree Topology :

❑A tree topology is a sort of structure in which each node is related to the

others in a hierarchy.
❑ In a topological hierarchy, there are at least three distinct levels.
❑ Sometimes it is also called hierarchical topology as in this topology, all
elements are arranged like the branches of a tree. It is a lot like the star and bus
topologies.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
❑ Tree topologies are commonly used to arrange data in databases and
workstations in corporate networks. In a tree topology, any two linked nodes can
only have one mutual connection, hence there can only be one link between
them.
❑There are several ways to define tree topology; such are as follows:
1. A tree topology combines several star topologies by connecting several
components to the centre node.
2. It may define by experts as tree topology is a combination of bus and star
topologies in which all nodes are attached with the help of a single central
node.
3. Every node in this architecture is connected one to one in a hierarchy level,
with each neighbouring node on its lower level. Each secondary node has a
point-to-point link to the parent node, and all secondary nodes under its
jurisdiction have point-to-point connections to the tertiary nodes. When
examined in a visual sense, these systems resemble a tree structure.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a
combination of two or more network topologies, such as mesh topology, bus
topology, and ring topology.
❑ Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and requirements like
the performance of the desired network, and the number of computers, their
location.
❑ The hybrid topology is more useful when you need to fulfill diversity
in Computer Network. In this topology, all network sections can include the
configuration of different Network Topology. For instance, you can have a Hybrid
network made by two different networks Star Backbone and the Ring Network.
You can also use the Star Mesh Hybrid Topology in which if the main backbone
gets fail, the entire network will destroy.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Network Models
❑ Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed so
that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another.
❑The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the Internet model.
Categories of Networks
Generally there are two primary categories of networks:
❑ Local-area networks and wide-area networks. The category into which a
network falls is determined by its size.
❑ A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 miles:; a WAN can be worldwide.
❑ Networks of a size in between are normally referred to as metropolitan area
networks and span tens of miles.
Local Area Network
❑A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in
a single office, building, or campus.
❑ Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a
LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it
can extend throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals.
Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
❑ LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware
(e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or data.

Wide Area Network

❑A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,
image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...

❑ Normally refer to the first as a switched WAN and to the second as a point-
to-point WAN.
❑ The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router
(internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
❑ The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable
TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet
service provider (lSP).This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS Cont...
Metropolitan Area Networks
❑A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a
LAN and a WAN.
❑ It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.
❑ It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally
to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
❑ A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed to the customer.
❑ Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for
cable TV
Network Architecture
ISO-OSI Reference Model
❑ OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by
ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984.
❑ It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform.
❑ Allthese 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.
Network Architecture Cont...
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) : The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is
the physical layer.
❑It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
❑ It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s
and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together.

Note: The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.
Network Architecture Cont...
The functions of the physical layer are as follows:
❖Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at bit level.
❖ Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
❖ Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
❖ Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
❑ The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
❑ The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-
free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
❑When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address. Data Link Layer is divided into two
sublayers:
a) Logical Link Control (LLC) b) Media Access Control (MAC)
Network Architecture Cont...

Note: The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next.
❑The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card).
❑DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
❑The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the
destination host will reply with its MAC address.
The functions of the Data Link layer are :
❖Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
Network Architecture Cont...
❖2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
❖3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
❖4. Flow Control: The data rate (frequency) must be constant on both sides
else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
❖5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine
which device has control over the channel at a given time.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
❑The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks.
❑ It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
❑The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.
Network Architecture Cont...

Note: The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
The functions of the Network layer are :
❖Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination.This function of the network layer is known as routing.
❖Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme.
-The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer.
- Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Network Architecture Cont...
4.Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
❑ The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer.
❑ The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
❑ The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
❑ At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to
ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port
numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
❑ Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default
or manually.
❑ For example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically
uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications.
Many applications have default ports assigned.
Network Architecture Cont...
❑ At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Note: The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
❖ Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments
produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
Network Architecture Cont...
❖Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
❑ In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an
acknowledgement, back to the source after a packet or group of
packets is received.
❑ This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet.
- This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
- Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
Network Architecture Cont...
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :
❑ This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, authentication, and also ensures security.
Network Architecture Cont...
The functions of the session layer are :
❖Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
❖Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered synchronization points into the data.
- These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data
is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.
❖Dialog
Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the
TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.

**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are
also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
Network Architecture Cont...
Scenario:
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This
message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

❑ The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
Network Architecture Cont...

Note: The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and

encryption.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
❖ Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
❖Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted
data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
❖Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.
Network Architecture Cont...
7.Application Layer (Layer 7) :
❑At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
❑ These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over
the network.
❑ Thislayer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example:Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Network Architecture Cont...
❑ The fig. shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the
presentation layer.
❑ Of the many application services available, the figure shows only three: XAOO
(message-handling services), X.500 (directory services), and file transfer, access, and
management (FTAM).
❑ The user in this example employs XAOO to send an e-mail message.
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :
❖Network Virtual Terminal
❖FTAM-File transfer access and management
❖Mail Services
❖Directory Services

OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because
of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
Network Architecture Cont...
OSI model in a nutshell
Network Architecture Cont...
TCP/IP PROTOCOL (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) SUITE
❑The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore,
the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model.
❑ Theoriginal TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application.
Network Architecture Cont...
❑TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily
interdependent.
❑ Whereas the OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers,
the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can
be mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system.
❑ The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported by one
or more lower-level protocols.
❑ At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control
Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
❑ At the network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is the
Internetworking Protocol (IP); there are also some other protocols that
support data movement in this layer.
Network Architecture Cont...
1. Physical and Data Link Layers
❑ At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPIIP
internetwork can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.
Network Architecture Cont...
2. Network Layer
❑ At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP
supports the Internetworking Protocol.
❑ The primary component of the Internet layer is the Internet Protocol
(IP).Many of the TCP/IP routing protocols are also classified as part of the
Internet layer such as ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse
Address Resolution Protocol).
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
-The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols.
-It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service.
-The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking.
- IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a
transmission through to its destination, but with no guarantees.
-IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately.
-Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or
be duplicated.
Network Architecture Cont...
❑IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
❑The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however. IP
provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those
facilities necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum
efficiency.
Address Resolution Protocol
-The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address
with a physical address.
-On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified
by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card
(NIC).
- ARPis used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is
known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
-The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its
Internet address when it knows only its physical address.
-It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time
or when a diskless computer is booted.
Network Architecture Cont...
3.Transport Layer
❑ Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP
and UDP.
❑ IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one
physical device to another.
❑UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process.
User Datagram Protocol
-The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard
TCPIIP transport protocols.
-It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
Transmission Control Protocol
-The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services
to applications.TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol.
-The term stream, in this context, means connection-oriented: A connection must
be established between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit
data.
Network Architecture Cont...
-Atthe sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into
smaller units called segments.
-Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together
with an acknowledgment number for the segments received.
- Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.
- At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders
the transmission based on sequence numbers.
4. Application Layer
❑The application layer in TCPIIP is equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application layers in the OSI model.
❑ Many protocols are defined at this layer.
Network Architecture Cont...
Network Architecture Cont...
Similarities between the TCP/IP and OSI models
❖Both the models are based upon layered structuring.
❖In both models, data are mainly used to convert raw data into packets and
help them reach their destination node.
❖In both models, protocols are defined in a layer-wise manner.
❖The layers in the models are compared with each other. The physical layer and
the data link layer of the OSI model correspond to the link layer of the TCP/IP
model.
❖The session layer, the presentation layer and the application layer of the OSI
model together form the application layer of the TCP/IP model.
❖The network layers and the transport layers are the same in both models.
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