LOGICAL

FALLACY

Professor Academy

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Characteristics Proposition
In logic, the terms "distributed" and "undistributed" are used to describe the
quantity of terms in a categorical proposition.

Categorical propositions are statements that assert or deny something

about the relationship between classes or categories.

Here are the characteristics of distributed and undistributed propositions:

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Distributed Proposition
● A distributed proposition is one in which the subject or the predicate term
refers to all members of the class it represents.
● In a universal proposition (A or E), the subject term is distributed. In a particular
proposition (I or O), neither the subject nor the predicate term is distributed.

Example:

● Universal affirmative (A proposition): "All dogs are mammals." Here, the

subject term "dogs" is distributed because it refers to all dogs.
● Universal negative (E proposition): "No cats are reptiles." Both the subject term
"cats" and the predicate term "reptiles" are distributed because they refer to all
members of their respective classes.

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Undistributed Proposition:
● An undistributed proposition is one in which the subject or the predicate term
refers only to some, but not all, members of the class it represents.
● In a particular proposition (I or O), neither the subject nor the predicate term is
distributed.

Example:

● Particular affirmative (I proposition): "Some birds can fly." Here, neither the
subject term "birds" nor the predicate term "can fly" is distributed because
they don't refer to all members of their respective classes.
● Particular negative (O proposition): "Some insects are not harmful." The
subject term "insects" is undistributed and the predicate term "harmful" is
distributed.

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Characteristics of proposition

Distribution
Types of
Symbol Example Subject Predicate
Proposition
(Money) (Paper)

Universal
A All money is paper Distributed Undistributed
Affirmative

Universal
E No money is paper Distributed Distributed
Negative

Particular
I Some money is paper Undistributed Undistributed
Affirmative

Particular
O Some money is not paper Undistributed Distributed
Negative
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FORMAL FALLACY
Formal fallacies include an error in the structure of their argument.
"Formal" in this case doesn't mean "proper;" it relates to the form.
They occur when the conclusion doesn't follow the premise.

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Types of formal fallacies:
1. Denying the Antecedent (Modus Tollens):
It involves incorrectly denying the consequent of a conditional
statement based on the denial of the statement.

Ex: If it barks, it is a dog. It doesn't bark. Therefore, it's not a dog.

Explanation: It is not that clear that a fallacy is being committed, but

because this is a formal argument following a strict form, even if the
conclusion seems to be true, the argument is still invalid.

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Types of formal fallacies:
2. Affirming the Consequent (Modus Ponens): it occurs when one
mistakenly assumes that if the consequent of a conditional
statement is true, then the antecedent must also be true.

EX.,
I have a fever. Therefore, I have the flu.

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Types of formal fallacies:
3. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises (Exclusive Premises):
It occurs when both premises of a categorical syllogism (a type of
argument with two premises and a conclusion) are negative.
Ex
No A is B
Some C is not B
Therefore, Some A is not C

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Types of formal fallacies:
4. Fallacy of Affirmative Conclusion from Negative Premises (Illicit
Process):
Here, someone attempts to draw a positive conclusion from
premises that are either one negative statements.
All A are B.
No C are B.
Therefore, some A are C .

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Types of formal fallacies:
5. Existential Fallacy:
This occurs when someone mistakenly assumes that just because there are
instances of two categories overlapping (A and B, and some B and C), there
must be overlap between A and C as well.
All A are B.
Some B are C.
Therefore, some A are C.

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Types of formal fallacies:

6. Undistributed Middle:
This fallacy arises when the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not
distributed to both premises, making the conclusion invalid.
All A are B.
All C are B.
Therefore, all A are C.

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Types of formal fallacies:
7. Fallacy of Four Terms (Quaternio Terminorum):
In this fallacy, there are actually four distinct terms used in the premises,
making the argument invalid.
Ex
All A are B.
All C are D.
Therefore, all A are C.

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Types of formal fallacies:

8. Illicit Major: Here, the major term (the predicate of the conclusion) is
undistributed in the premises, making the conclusion invalid.
Ex
Some A are B.
All C are B.
Therefore, Some C are A.

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Types of formal fallacies:
9. Illicit Minor: This fallacy occurs when the minor term (the subject of the
conclusion) is undistributed in the premises, leading to an invalid
conclusion.

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Types of formal fallacies:

10. Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle: This fallacy is similar to the

Undistributed Middle but specifically focuses on categorical syllogisms
where the middle term is not distributed in either premise.
All A are B.
All C are B.
Therefore, Some A are C.

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1. 'If Sneha tampered with the examination script, then she is guilty of a crime.
Sneha did not tamper with the examination script. Therefore sneha is not guilty of
a crime'. Which fallacy is committed in the above argument?

1. Fallacy of affirming the antecedent

2. Fallacy of composition
3. Fallacy of denying the antecedent
4. Fallacy of affirming the consequent
ANS:

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2. Identify the formal fallacy committed in the following argument

No tragic actors are idiots,

Some comedians are not idiots.

Therefore, Some comedians are not tragic actors.

1. Exclusive premise
ANS:1
2. Existential fallacy

3. Denying the antecedent

4. Affirming the consequent

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3. No poets are scientists.

Some artists are poets.

Therefore some artists are scientists.

Which formal fallacy is committed in this argument?

1. Denying the antecedent

ANS:3
2. Exclusive premises

3. Fallacy of drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise

4. Existential fallacy

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4. Which one of the following formal fallacies is committed in the given
argument?

Some birds are not beautiful creatures.

All dogs are beautiful creatures

Therefore, No dogs are birds

1. Fallacy of Illicit process of major term

2. Fallacy of Illicit process of minor term
3. Fallacy of undistributed middle term
4. Fallacy of four terms ANS: 1

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5. Which one of the following formal fallacies is committed in the given argument?

All athletes are sportspersons.

No actor is an athlete.

Therefore, No actors are sportspersons.

A. Fallacy of Illicit process of Major Term

B. Fallacy of Illicit process of Minor Term
C. Fallacy of Exclusive Premises ANS:A
D. Existential Fallacy

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6. Which one of the following formal fallacies is committed in the given argument?

No cats are dogs

All dogs are pets

Therefore, No pets are cats

1. Fallacy of Illicit process of major term

2. Fallacy of Illicit process of minor term
3. Fallacy of undistributed middle term
4. Fallacy of four terms

ANS: 2

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7. Which one of the following formal fallacies is committed in the given argument?

All snakes are reptiles.

Some snakes are poisonous creatures.

Therefore All poisonous creatures are reptiles.

1. Fallacy of Illicit process of major term

2. Fallacy of Illicit process of minor term
3. Fallacy of undistributed middle term
4. Fallacy of four terms

ANS: 2

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INFORMAL FALLACY
Informal fallacies are types of inductive argument the premises of which fail to
establish the conclusion because of their content. There are many kinds of informal
fallacy

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Ad Hominem Fallacy

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Appeal to Authority Fallacy
Appeal to authority fallacy occurs
when we accept a claim merely
because someone tells us that an
authority figure supports that
claim. An authority figure can be a
celebrity, a well-known scientist,
or any person whose status and
prestige causes us to respect
them.

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Appeal to Emotion Fallacy
Appeal to emotion fallacy occurs
when someone tries to win an
argument by evoking emotion,
without using facts or logic.
Arguments that appeal to our
emotions often attempt to
influence our viewpoints in a
manipulative way.

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Appeal to Force Fallacy or Ad Baculum

This argument says that something bad will

happen if the audience doesn’t agree.

Example:

If you don’t believe in God, you’re going to

hell.

Appeal to force includes threats and is

designed to scare the audience.

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Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy
This fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be
true, because there is no evidence against it.

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Appeal to majority fallacy
The popular appeal fallacy is demonstrated by the mistaken belief
that conclusions can be drawn from claims that state everyone, or
almost everyone, agrees with those conclusions.

For example, many people might believe that a certain type of food is
healthy simply because it is popular, without considering any
scientific evidence about the nutritional content of the food.

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Appeal to Pity Fallacy
The appeal to pity fallacy occurs when someone attempts to persuade
others by provoking feelings of guilt or pity. Instead of presenting
factual information and evidence to support an argument, one may try
to play on people's feelings.

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Appeal to popularity or ad populum fallacy
The appeal to popularity, is the mistake of arguing that a claim is true
based solely on the fact that many people believe it. This fallacy
appeals to innate biases that encourage us to conform to others'
opinions and behaviors.

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Fallacy in which a proposition is held to be true just because it has
not been proved false or false just because it has not been proved
true is called:

1. Fallacy of Composition
2. Irrelevant Conclusion
3. Argument from Ignorance ANS:3
4. Hasty Generalization

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Identify the fallacy committed in the following argument:

There must be intelligent life on other planets. No one has proven that there
is.

1. Appeal to ignorance

2. False alternative

3. Slippery slope

4. Hasty Generalization

ANS:1

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Of course, XYZ political party is going to sweep the polls in the coming elections.
Everybody is saying ; Which informal fallacy is committed in the above statement?

1. Appeal to Emotion

2. Begging the Question

3. Slippery slope

4. Appeal to Majority

ANS:4

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Begging the question Fallacy

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Circular Reasoning Fallacy

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Which of the following is defined as a type of irrelevant conclusion
fallacy in which a distracting element is introduced to obscure an
opponent's position?

1. An Appeal to Emotion
2. Appeal to Inappropriate Authority
3. Argument ad hominem
4. Red Herring ANS: 4

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Straw Man Fallacy
Straw Man Fallacy: when someone distorts or exaggerates another person's
argument, and then attacks the distorted version of the argument instead of
refuting the original point.

Personal Relationships: Your partner claims you never listen to them, even though
you've only disagreed on a specific issue.

Social Media Debates: Someone accuses you of being anti-environment because you
suggested that a particular policy might have unintended consequences.

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"The secretaries have asked us to provide lounge areas where they can spend
their coffee breaks. This request will have to refused. If we give them lounge
areas, next they will ask for spas and swimming then it will be yoga centres and
fitness gyms. Expenditures for these facilities will drive us into bankruptcy-. Which
fallacy is committed in the above argument?

1. Straw man
2. Hasty generalization ANS: 4
3. Red herring
4. Slippery slope

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Mr. Quintal has argued that logic is not the most important thing in life.
Apparently, Mr. Quintal advocates irrationality. It has taken two million
years for the human race to achieve the position that it has and Mr.
Quintal would throw the whole thing into garbage;

Which fallacy is committed in this argument?

1. Slippery slope

2. Strawman ANS:2
3. Red herring

4. Hasty generalization

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Irrelevant Conclusion Fallacy
This informal fallacy of presenting an argument whose conclusion fails
to address the issue in question.

For example, “The professor is attractive therefore the class must be

good.”

The connection between people who are attractive and people who
teach well is missing in this argument.

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Weak Analogy Fallacy
If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the
relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that
relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy.

Example: “Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts
that could be used to kill someone.

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Fallacy of composition
This fallacy occurs when someone generalizes
the whole based on the characteristics of its
parts.

Ex: “Saving money improves an individual's

financial security, so if everyone in the nation
saves money instead of spending, the economy
will improve.”

In this example of a fallacy of composition, the

argument incorrectly assumes that what benefits
an individual will benefit the group

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Which fallacy is exemplified in the following statements Of course gun ownership
should not be prohibited. You can kill someone with a hockey stick, but no one
proposes to ban ownership of hockey sticks?

1. Slippery slope

2. Weak Analogy

3. Red Herring

4. Straw Man
ANS:2

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A wise sage has said “The hunger for knowledge is more difficult to remove than
the hunger for food. Therefore, one should stick to food”. Which fallacy is
committed in this argument?

1. Begging the Question

2. False Dilemma
3. Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion)
4. Appeal to Emotion

ANS: 3

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“XYZ Home Finance offers best financial product in the country because like a
family member and a good friend XYZ Home Finance fulfils your need to have
your own sweet home”. Which of the following fallacies is committed in this
argument?

1. Ad Populum
2. Ad Hominem
3. Hasty Generalisation
4. Red Herring

ANS: 1

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 HAPPY
LEARNING

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