11

Ballast

Ballast is the granular material usually broken stone or brick, shingle or kankar,
below and around the sleepers to transmit
gravel or sand placed and packed and at the same
load (due to the wheels of the train) from sleepers, to formation the
of the track. It provides a suitable foundation for
time allowing drainage
in their correct level and position, preventing
sleepers and also hold the sleepers a
thrusts. The lateral stability of
their displacement by lateral or longitudinal
track depends on the ballast.

11.1 FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST

Ballast performs the following functions: then distributes
to the subgrade and
() It transfers the load from the sleeper formation.
it uniformly over a larger area of the
and prevents the lateral and longitudinal
(i) It holds the sleepers in position trains.
movement, due to dynamic loads and vibrations of moving
track.
to the
(ii) It imparts some degree elasticity
of
correct levels of the two
lines
means of maintaining the
(iv) provides
It easy
and correct super-elevation on
of a track (i.e., level in straight portions
curves) and for correcting track alignment. and
drained foundation immediately below the sleepers
(v) It provides good This is achieved by
surface of the formation.
helps to protect the top with plenty of voids.
providing coarse and rough aggregates
BALLAST
11.2 REQUIREMENTS OF THE GOOD
functions, the ballast should have the follow-
To perform the above mentioned
ingcharacteristics hard-packing without disintegrating. In
() It should be able to withstand loads.
resist crushing under dynamic
other words, it should
or muddy due to powder under dynamic
(ti) Itshould not make the track dusty
of being cleaned to provide good
wheel loads but should be capable
drainage. with minimum soakage and the voids
(ii) It should allow for easy drainage capillary action.
should be large enough to prevent
abrasion and weathering. Abrasion means
iv) It should offer resistance to with each other and weathering
wear rubbing action of paticles
due to
of the material due to variation in tempera-
means cracking and shattering
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING

11.2 of ballast are usually

Non-porous particles
moisture and freezing. abrasion and weathering.
ture, better
resistance against
more durable due to and longitudinally
under all condi.
retain its position laterally
where i
should
should be able
able to prevent
prevent
(v) It should particularly on
curves,
friction between par
tions of traffic, The internal
transverse
displacement of sleepers. and texture of
the size, shape
stability depends upon should be used but
ticles which provide and cubical
aggregates
therefore, angular
particles,
not the flat-particles. with rail and metal sleepers.
chemical action
not produce any cm for
(vi) It should wooden sleepers, 4
should be S cm for
(vii) The size of stone ballast and c r o s s o v e r s .
metal sleepers and 2.5 cmfor
turnouts
in
means of the implements
should be easily
workable by
vi) The materials
use. that it reduces the
available in nearby quarries
so

(ix) The ballast should be of quality, amount

It should also fulfil the
requirements
cost of supply.
maintenance cost.
of traffic, life and the characteristics of
should be such which fulfils
In short, the ballast and stability and
economy
drainability,
strength, eleanability, durability, harmful effects on rails and sleepers.
with no
is workable with specific size

11.3 TYPES OF BALLAST

The different materials used ballast in India are broken stone, gravel, sand,
as
overburnt and broken
ashes or cinders, soft aggregates like moorum, kanker,
selected earth.
brickbats, blast furnace slag and sometimes
for the ballast and almost all
(1) Broken Stone. This is the best material
Broken stone satisfies all the
important tracks are provided with stone ballast.
above. The best
specifications and requirements of a good ballast mentioned
stone for ballast is a nonporous, hard and angular, which does not flake when
broken. Igneous rocks such as hard trap, quartzite and granite, make excellent
ballast and are used in large quantities for high speed tracks in India. Where
such hard stone is not available, sandstone and limestone which make fairly
good ballast are used.
For stability, graded broken stone ballast is better than ungraded one.
Graded stone of S.08 cm to 1.9 cm size is found to provide the maximum
stability. On the other hand, workability is better with smaller size ballast say,
1.9 cm size.
(2) Gravel or River Pebbles or Shingle. Gravel comes next in rank for
its suitability for use as ballast and is used in large quantities in many countries.
This is obtained either from river beds or from
gravel pits. The smooth pebbles
are broken, otherwise they are liable to
displace the sleeper due to smoothness
of its particles and the packing does not hold,
(because the particles roll down
the section due to vibrations and the
The process of ramming the ballast
packing under the sleeper gets loose).
underneath the sleeper is known as
"packing". The ballast above this layer which surrounds the
sleeper, is loose-
BALLAST 11.3
filled and is known as"Boxing". The loose ballast between the two adjacent
sleepers is known as "Ballast crib".
(3) Ashes or Cinders. This material is available in large quantities on
railways from coal being used in locomotives. It has excellent drainage proper-
ties as it is very porous. It is cheap and is largely used in sidings but cannot be
used for main lines as it is very soft and gets reduced to powder under wheel
loads and makes the track very dusty. It is excellent for station yards and for
footpaths particularly in rainy weather as it does not retain water and is not
slippery. The great drawback of ashes is its corrosive quality and, therefore,it
corrodes steel sleepers and foot of the rails. In emergency, such as destruction
oftrack by floods, the ashes or cinders being easily available in large quantities,
can be used for repairing formation or packing tracks.
(4) Sand. It is reasonably good material as ballast as it is cheap and
provides good drainage (provided it is free of earth and vegetation). Sand ballast
also produces a silent track and has been found to be particularly good for
packing pot sleepers. The great drawback of the sand is its blowing effect due
to vibration. The sand gets into the moving parts and on the track and causes
heavy wear. The maintenance of the track is, therefore, difficult. Sand ballast
is sometimes covered with a layer of stone or brick or some such material to
prevent it from blowing about too much. The coarse sand is preferred to fine
sand. The best sand consists of a good quantity of fine gravel and sand which
is used on narrow gauge tracks.
(5) Moorum. It is the soft aggregate and is the result of decomposition
of laterite and has a red or sometimes a yellow colour. The best moorum for
ballast is that which contains large quantities of small laterite stone. It is
recommended as a ballast for sidings and main tracks when they are newly laid
and the embankments are not sufficiently consolidated. When moorum is
finally laid on the track, it forms a soling or blanket under the stone ballast.
(6) Kankar. It is lime agglomerate which is common in certain clayey
soils and is dug out of the ground. Where stone is not easily available, it is used
as road metal and as ballast for railway tracks. It is soft
in nature and reduces
to powder under loads. It is used for M.G. and N.G.
tracks with light traffic and
where a better type of the ballast is not available.
available for use as
(7) Brick Ballast. Where no stone or substitute is
ballast, overburnt bricks are broken into small sizes and used. It powders easily
and produces a dusty track. Rails of tracks laid on brick ballast many a time get
for
corrugated. Brick ballast, however, is fairly good drainage.
in the manufacture of pig
(8) Blast Furnace Slag. Which is a by-product
iron forms a suitable ballast material. It should,
however, be hard, of high
holes. Slag, suitable for use as ballast, is obtained by
density and free from gas
the blast furnace into shallow pits of thin layers,
pouring molten slag collected at and screening.
allowing it to cool, and then by digging, crushing
if of suitable quality, is sometimes
(9) Selected Earth. For sidings, earth, new formation as a temporary
used ballast. It is also sometimes used on
as
rock suitable
measure. Indurated (i.e. hardened) clay and decomposed are

materials.
11.4 RAILWAY ENGINEERING

11.4 SIZE AND SECTION OF BALLAST

The size of the ballast used varies from 1.9 cm. to 5.1 cm. gauge. Stones of
rger sizes are not desirable and the maximum size as 5.1 cm. is preferable,The
as

interlocking of stones of this size is better than that of stone of larger sizes.
Dest ballast is that which contains stones varying in size from 1.9 cm to 5.1l cm.
with reasonable proportion of intermediate sizes.
The exact size of the ballast depends upon the type of sleeper used and
location of the track as below:
) Ballast size for wooden sleepers tracks 5.1 cm. (gauge)
(i) Ballast size for steel sleepers tracks 3.8 cm. (gauge)
(1) Ballast size for under switches and crossings = 2.54cm. (gauge)
The section of ballast layer consists of depth of ballast under the sleepers
and the width of the ballast layer.
The depth of the ballast under the sleepers is an important factor in the load
bearing capacity and uniformity of distribution of load. The more is the depth
of ballast more will be the load-bearing capacity. In America, a depth of ballast
equivalent to the sleeper spacing is recommended, because of heavier loads
and the closer spacing of sleepers being used in that country. In India, this
recommendation will give unnecessarily thicker layer of ballast due to large
spacing of sleepers, being used.
The width of the ballast layer is also important as the lateral strength of
rack depends partdly upon the quantity of ballast used at the ends of the sleepers.
The lateral strength increases with increase in width of the ballast layer but there
is a limit beyond which no useful purpose is served by widening. This width
limit is at 38 cm. to 43 cm. from the end of the sleeper as computed. The Indian
standards have recommended dimensions for () width of ballast section at the
level of the foot of the rail and (i) for depth of ballast below the
sleepers
(Fig. 11.1).
Minimum Depth of Ballast Section. Although the lines of
in ballast through wheel loads are in the
equal pressure
shape of a "bulb' (refer to Fig. 4.5) yet
for simplicity purpose, the load dispersion can be assumed at 45" to the
vertical.
For unifom distribution of load on the formation, the
depth of ballast should
be such that the dispersion lines do not
overlap each other. From simple
geometry of Fig. 11.1, the depth of ballast can be calculated as below:
W 20b
Sleeper spocing(S)P

D45

Flg. 11.1. Minimum Depth of Ballast

Sleeper Spacing (S) = width of sleeper (w) +2 x

depth of ballast (Db
BALLAST 11.5
or S = w+2x Db

Db =
Minimum Depth of ballast.
For example, if wooden sleepers are used in track laying with sleeper
density as (n+7), the sleeper spacing is 65 cm and width of sleeperis 2.5 cm.
Then, the minimum depth of ballast from above formula works out to be
20 cm which is minimum depth of ballast generally prescribed on Indian

Railways.
Table 11.1. Details of Ballast Sections
Dimensions B.G. M.G N.G.

1.83 m
|1. Width of ballast 3.35 m 2.25 m

2. Depth of ballast 20 to 25 cm 15 to 20 cm 15 cm

3. Quantity of stone 1.036 m 0.71 m3 0.53 m

ballast per metre
length

11.5 QUANTITY OF BALLAST

The quantity of stone ballast required per metre tangent length is 1.036 m* for
B.G., 0.71 m° for M.G. and 0.53 m° for N.G. of track with standard ballast
cushion and timber sleepers. Slight variations in quantities occur with the type
of sleeper used. Wooden and concrete through sleepers because of their bulk,
require slightly less ballast than pot or trough sleepers.
3.35m for B.G.
2.25m for M.G.
1.83m for N.G.

Ballast
shoulder

2 0 to 25cm for B.G.

15 to 20cm for M.G.
15cm for N.G.

Fig. 11.2. Ballast Sections for Railway Tracks.

For curves with superelevation, the quantity of ballast is slightly more,
because as per the Indian standards, recommended depth at level is provided
under the inner edge of the sleeper. Moreover, wider shoulders (about 15 cm
or more) than specified above are provided on outside curves to counteract the
increased lateral thrust.
Table 11.2 gives a comparative statement of the various materials used as
ballast for the railway track.
 Table 11.2 Comparison of Ballast Materials
Serial Ballast
Merits Demerits
Number Materials Suitability of Various
(2 Materials
(3) 14 (5]
1. Broken Stones 1. as
|Such Granite, Basalt, Quartzite 1. |Initial cost is high. Best suited for ballast.
[A) lgneous Rocks Trap, etc. have all the
characteristics, such as strength,2. Angular shape injures wooden
stability, durability drainability.
and
sleepers during packing.
economy workability which are
required for a good ballast.
2.
Ballast cushion is minimum.
[B Aqueous Rocks 1. Such as lime stones and
sand Easily broken down to pieces. Fairly good ballast.
stones. These fulfil almost all the
good qualities of ballast.
2.
It is less costly than igneous rocks.
2. Gravel 1. Less costly as no breaking cost. Packing gets easily disturbed in flat Suitable ballast material
2. It does not injure wooden sleepers
2.
sleepers. where good ballast|
3.
Maintains good packing in pot and
C.S.T-9 sleepers. Greater cushion is necessary. material is not available.
3.
It has best drainage quality.
|Requires ballast wall to prevent
4
spreading.
3. Brick 1. It is cheap. Unsuitable for heavy and high Good ballast material,
2. Readily and locally available. speed traffic.
3.
where suitable ballast
It has fairly good drainage facilities.| 2.
|Makes the tracks dusty and muddy.material is not available.
Corrodes metal sleepers and rails.
3.
Causes roaring of rails.
4.
4. Moorum 1. Best for siding and main tracks 1. Moorum is very soft and turns as
into|1. Never used perma
when nearly formed, particularly in dust in very short time.
black cotton soil to form a sub-| ballast
|ballast [blanket]. 2.
2. Cheapest if locally available.
Maintenance of track with moorum
as ballast is very dificult. 2. Acts as soling when
3.
Makes the track less noisy. stone ballast is laid
4. Suitable for station yards.
5. afterwards.
possesses good drainage
properties.
5. Ashes or Cinders 1. Excellent for station yards. 1. 1. Good ballast for
Corrodes metal sleeper and foot of station yards.
the rails
2. Soft and light, so the track becomes 2. Specially useful in
2. Prevents vegetable growth.
3. t possesses fairly good drainage dusty. emergency.
3. Dusty track is objectionable
properties.
Easy handling and less material especially in dry weather.
cost.
Useful in emergency as available in
large quantities in short time for
repairing formation and packing of
tracks.
6. Sand 1. |It is a cheap material. 1. Sand is easily blown off and causes|Unsuitable for heavy and
2. Good drainage provided if free from heavy wear of rails and moving parts high speed tracks but|
vegetation and earth. of train. can be used for M.G. and
3. Produces a silent track. 2. Sand ballast requires frequent N.G. with light traffic.
4. It is particularly good for packing renewal.
cast iron sleepers. 3. Maintenance of ballast track is
difficult.
 11.8
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
11.6 RENEWAL OF
BALLAST
Due to prolonged and repeated movement of wheel loads over the railway track,
ne ballast material gets crushed to smaller sizes. The fine crushed particles get
Tilled in the voids and form an impervious layer, preventing the rapid flow (1.e.
arainage) of the rain water. It thus creates drainage problem.
Quantity of ballast is also reduced due to:
(a) Blowing away of the ballast
by the movement of trains.
(b) Penetration of the ballast in the formation, and
(c) Loss of ballast due to rain water and wind etc.
To make up the loss, the ballast is renewed from time to time. In the process
of renewal, the crushed fine material is removed by screening, through the
SCreens as shown in Fig. 11.3 and new material ofthe desired size is added.

Inclined screen
(Wire-mesh)
Supporting
frame

Usable
ballast

Fine particles
removed
Flg.11.3. Screening of Ballast.

SUMMARY
Ballast is the granular material which is packed below and around the
sleepers to transmit load from sleepers to formation and provide elasticity to
the track. It also helps in drainage of the track. Broken stone is considered as
the best type of ballast, though Gravels, Cinders, Sand, Moorum, Kankar, Brick
ballast, etc. can also be used.
Table 11.1 gives the recommended dimensions of the ballast section of
B.G., M.G. and N.G. tracks. Whenever quantities of ballast become lesser than
those recommended, it is renewed. During the renewal, the fine crushed
particles are removed through screening. For proper stability, cleaning, screen-
ing and packing of ballast is essential.
Ballast requires regular watch and routine care during the daily and
periodic maintenance, because under the heavy moving loads it gets crushed.
Strength varies inversely proportional to the voides.