1

Chapter#2
Communication
 Network 2

• Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that

can exchange data and share resources with each other.
• These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications
protocols.
• To transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.
 LAN (Local Area Network) 3

• LANs tended to be much smaller networks (usually inside one building)

connecting a number of computers and shared devices, such as
printers.
• It will be used by an organisation or a company within a site or branch.
• It will be owned by the organisation or company.
• It will be one of many individual LANS at one site.
• The transmission medium will be twisted pair cable or WiFi.
• The LAN will contain a device that allows connection to other networks.
• A typical LAN consists of a number of computers and devices (such as printers)
connected to hubs or switches.
 MAN 4

• a metropolitan area network (MAN)

• MANs are larger than LANs as they can connect together many small
computer networks (e.g LANs) housed in different buildings within a
city (for example, a university campus).
• MANs are restricted in their size geographically to, for example, a single
city.
 Wide Area Network (WAN) 5

• In a WAN, the networked computers could be thousands of kilometres apart.

• WANs typically consist of a number of LANs connected via public
communications networks (such as telephone lines or satellites).

• A typical WAN is characterised by the following:

• It will be used by an organisation or a company to connect sites or branches.
• It will not be owned by the organisation or company.
• It will be leased from a public switched telephone network company (PSTN).
A dedicated communication link will be provided by the PSTN.
• The transmission medium will be fibre-optic cable.
• Transmission within the WAN will be from switch to switch.
• A switch will connect the WAN to each site.
 Benefits of networking computers and devices 6

• Devices, such as printers, can be shared (thus reducing costs).

• Licences to run software on networks are often far cheaper than buying
licences for an equivalent number of stand-alone computers.
• Users can share files and data.
• Access to reliable data that comes from a central source, such as a file
server.
• Data and files can be backed up centrally at the end of each day. »
Users can communicate using email and instant messaging.
• A network manager can oversee the network and, for example, apply
access rights to certain files, or restrict access to external networks,
such as the internet.
Wireless LANs (WLANs) 7
 Wireless LANs (WLANs) 8

• Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables.
• they provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances (up to 100
metres)
• use radio or infrared signals instead of using cables.
• Devices, known as wireless access points (WAPs), are connected into the wired network at
fixed locations.
• Because of the limited range, most commercial LANs need several WAPs to permit
uninterrupted wireless communications.
• The WAPs use either spread:
• spectrum technology (which is a wideband radio frequency with a range from a few
metres to 100 metres)
• or infrared (which has a very short range of about 1 to 2 metres and is easily blocked,
and therefore has limited use
 PAN 9

• PAN: 1 m to 10 m (this is not a commonly used term – it means

personal area network; in other words, a home system)
• examples of a PAN is the connection between a Bluetooth earpiece and
a smartphone.
• PANs can also connect laptops, tablets, printers, keyboards, and other c
omputerized devices. PAN network connections can either be wired or
wireless.
 Networking models 10

• We will consider two types of networking models, client-server and

peer-to-peer.
Client-server model
11
» The client-server model uses separate dedicated servers and specific client
workstations; client computers will be connected to the server computer(s).
» Users are able to access most of the files, which are stored on dedicated servers.
The client-server model allows the installation of software onto a client’s computer.
» The model uses central security databases which control access to the shared
resources.
» Once a user is logged into the system, they will have access to only those
resources (such as a printer) and files assigned to them by the network
administrator, so offers greater security
» Client-server networks can be as large as you want them to be and they are much
easier to scale up than peer-to-peer networks.
» Client-server networks can become bottlenecked if there are several client
requests at the same time.
Client-server model
12

• In the client-server model, a file server is used and is responsible for–

central storage and management of data files, thus enabling other
network users to access files– allowing users to share information
without the need for offline devices (such as a memory stick)

• allowing any computer to be configured as the host machine and act as

the file server (note that the server could be a storage device (such as
SSD or HDD) that could also serve as a remote storage device for other
computers, thus allowing them to access this device as if it were a local
storage device attached to their computer).
Client-server model
13

The client-server approach is the choice in the following

circumstances:
• The server stores a database which is accessed from the
client system.
• The server stores a web application which allows the client
system to find or, sometimes, supply information.
• The server stores a web application which allows the client
system to carry out an e-commerce or financial transaction.
Thin VS Thick client 14

• Thin client: A thin client is heavily dependent on having access to a server to

allow constant access to files and to allow applications to run uninterrupted.
• A hardware example is a POS terminal at a supermarket that needs
constant access to a server to find prices, charge customers and to do any
significant processing.

• A thick client can either be a device or software that can work offline or
online; it is still able to do some processing whether it is connected to a
server or not.
• An example of software is a computer game which can run independently
on a user’s computer, but can also connect to an online server to allow
gamers to play and communicate with each other.
Thin VS Thick client 15
Peer-to-peer model 16
Peer-to-peer model 17

• The peer-to-peer model does not have a central server.

• Each of the nodes (workstations) on the network can share its files with all
the other nodes, and each of the nodes will have its own data.
• Because there is no central storage, there is no requirement to authenticate
users.
• the services available are listed on a nominated ‘look up’ computer – when
a node requests a service, the ‘look up’ computer is contacted to find out
which of the other network nodes can provide the required service
• other users on the network to simply access data from another node
• peers to be both suppliers and consumers.
• peers to participate as equals on the
Peer-to-peer model 18

• A user would choose the peer-to-peer network model for one or more of
following reasons:
• » The network of users is fairly small.
• » There is no need for robust security.
• » They require workstation-based applications rather than being server-
based.
Network topologies 19

• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.

Data can be sent through the medium in different modes:

• simplex mode where data flow is one-way only
• half duplex where data can flow either way but not simultaneously
• full duplex where simultaneous both-ways data flow is possible.

A ‘message’ is any type of data, which can be sent as either:

• a broadcast, which is a one-to-all communication (as used traditionally
for radio and television)
• a multicast, which is from one source to many destinations
• a unicast, which is a one-to-one communication.
Bus network topology 20

• A bus network topology uses a single central cable(backbone) to which all

computers and devices are connected.
• There is no direct connection between any pair of end-systems.
• A message must therefore be broadcast even though it might only be
intended for one end-system.
• It is easy to expand and requires little cabling
• Terminators are needed at each end to prevent signal reflection (bounce).
Bus network topology 21

The disadvantages of a bus network include:

• » If the main cable fails, the whole network goes down.
• » The performance of the network deteriorates under heavy loading.
• » The network is not secure since each packet passes through every node.

The advantages of a bus network include:

• » Even if one node fails, the remainder of the network continues to function.
• » It is easy to increase the size of the network by adding additional nodes.
Star topology 22

• A star network topology uses a central hub/switch and each

computer/device is connected to the hub/switch.
• Data going from host to host is directed through the central hub/switch.
• Each computer/device has its own dedicated connection to the central node
(hub/switch)
• any type of network cable can be used for the connections
• How packets are handled depends on whether the central node is a switch or
a hub?
• If it is a hub, all the packets will be sent to every device/node on the star
network
• If the central node is a switch, packets will only be sent to nodes where
the address matches the recipient address in the packet.
Star topology 23

The disadvantages of a star network include:

 Mesh topology 24

• In this configuration, each end-system has a point-to-point connection to

each of the other end-systems.
• There are two types of mesh network topologies: routing and flooding.
• Routing works by giving the nodes routing logic (in other words, they act
like a router) so that data is directed to its destination by the shortest
route and can be re-routed if one of the nodes in the route has failed.
• Flooding simply sends the data via all the nodes and uses no routing
logic, which can lead to unnecessary loading on the network.
• Many examples include industrial monitoring and control where sensors
are set up in mesh design and feedback to a control system which is part
of the mesh
Mesh topology 25

The disadvantages of a mesh network include:

Hybrid network 26

• A hybrid network is a mixture of two or more different topologies (bus and

star, bus and mesh, and so on).
• The main advantages and disadvantages depend on which types of network
are used to make up the hybrid network.
• An additional disadvantage is that they can be very complex to install,
configure and maintain.
Cloud computing 27

• Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on offsite

servers – the physical storage covers hundreds of servers in many locations.
• Software applications can be delivered to a user’s computer on demand
using cloud computing services. The cloud provider will both host and
manage software applications - this will include maintenance, software
upgrades and security for a monthly fee.
• A user will simply connect to the internet (using their web browser on a
computer or tablet or mobile phone) and contact their cloud services
supplier.
• The cloud services supplier will connect them to the software application
they require.
Public and private cloud computing 28

• Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on offsite

servers – the physical storage covers hundreds of servers in many locations.
• Public cloud is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
storage provider are different companies.
• Private cloud is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
company firewall. Customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated
and operate as a single entity.
• Hybrid cloud is a combination of private and public clouds. Some data
resides in the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be
accessed from a public cloud storage provider.
Cloud computing 29
Wireless networking 30

• The alternative to cable is wireless transmission.

• The three options here are radio, microwave or infrared.
• These are all examples of electromagnetic radiation.
• The only intrinsic difference between the three types is the frequency of the
waves.
• Penetration measures the ability of the electromagnetic radiation to pass
through different media.
• Attenuation is a reduction of signal strength during transmission
Wireless networking 31

• The factors listed on the left increase in the direction of the arrows.
• The bandwidth increases through radio and microwave to infrared but the
ability of the waves to penetrate solid objects is greatest for radio waves.
• The increased attenuation for infrared transmission, which has the highest
frequency, means that it is only suitable for indoor applications.
• The fact that it will not penetrate through a wall is then of benefit because
the transmission cannot escape and cause unwanted interference
elsewhere.
Wireless networking 32

• Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices.

• They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data transmission.
• Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different
frequencies (known as channels).
• Devices using Bluetooth automatically detect and connect to each other.
• When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at
random. If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks another
channel. This is known as spread spectrum frequency hopping.
• Bluetooth creates a secure wireless personal area network (WPAN) based on
key encryption.
Wireless networking 33

• Wi-Fi also uses spread spectrum technology.

• However, Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks, since it offers
much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security than
Bluetooth.
• A Wi-Fi-enabled device (such as a computer or smart phone) can access, for
example, the internet wirelessly at any wireless access point (WAP) or ‘hot
spot’ up to 100 metres away.
Wireless networking 34

• Satellites are components of modern communication systems.

• Figure 2.08 shows the altitudes (distances above Earth) of three different
types of satellite.
• The Van Allen belts are areas containing high levels of electrically charged
particles, which interfere with satellites.
Wireless networking 35

• The highest altitude satellites are in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) over the
equator and these are used to provide long-distance telephone and computer
network communication.
• ‘Geostationary’ means that the satellite orbits at the same speed as the Earth
spins.
• Only three GEO satellites are needed for full global coverage.
• Closer to Earth are a group of medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites some of which
provide the global positioning system (GPS).
• Ten MEO satellites are needed for global coverage.
• Low Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites work in ‘constellations’ to supplement the mobile
phone networks.
• Fifty LEO satellites are needed for full global coverage
• The disadvantage of satellites is that the greater transmission distance causes
transmission delays, which can cause technical problems for the network.
Wired networks 36

• Twisted pair cables are the most common cable type used in LANs.
• However, of the three types of cable, it has the lowest data transfer rate and
suffers the most from external interference (such as electromagnetic radiation).
• However, it is the cheapest option.
• There are two types of twisted pair cable: unshielded and shielded.
• Unshielded is used by residential users.
• Shielded is used commercially (the cable contains a thin metal foil jacket which
cancels out some of the external interference).
Wired networks 37

• Coaxial cables are the most commonly used cables in MANs and by cable
television companies.
• The cost of coaxial cables is higher than twisted pair cables but they offer a better
data transfer rate and are affected less by external interference.
• Coaxial cables also have about 80 times the transmission capacity of twisted pair.
• Coaxial suffers from the greatest signal attenuation, but offers the best anti-
jamming capabilities.
Wired networks 38

• Fibre optic cables are most commonly used to send data over long distances,
because they offer the best data transfer rate, the smallest signal attenuation and
have a very high resistance to external interference.
• The main drawback is the high cost.
• Unlike the other two types of cable, fibre optics use pulses of light rather than
pulses of electricity to transmit data.
Wired networks 39

• Fibre optic cables can be single- or multi-mode.

• Single-mode uses a single mode light source and has a smaller central core,
which results in less light reflection along the cable.
• This allows the data to travel faster and further, making them a good choice for
CATV and telecommunications.
• Multimode fiber (MMF) transmits multiple rays of light (or modes) simultaneously.
It is used primarily to transmit data over short to medium ranges.
• the construction causes higher light reflections in the core, so they work best over
shorter distances (in a LAN, for example).
 40

WEP, WPA, and WPA2 are WiFi security protocols that secure wireless connections. They keep your data hidden and
protect your communications, while blocking hackers from your network.
41
HUB 42

• Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of devices or computers
connected to them.
• A hub’s main task is to take any data packet (a group of data being transmitted)
received at one of its ports and then send the data to every computer in the
network.
• Using hubs is not a very secure method of data distribution and is also wasteful of
bandwidth.
• Note that hubs can be wired or wireless devices.
Switch 43

• unlike a hub, the switch checks the data packet received and works out its
destination address (or addresses) and sends the data to the appropriate
computer(s) only.
• This makes using a switch a more secure and efficient way of distributing data.
• Each device or computer on a network has a media access control (MAC) address
which identifies it uniquely.
• Data packets sent to switches will have a MAC address identifying the source of
the data and additional addresses identifying each device which should receive
the data.
• Note that switches can be wired or wireless devices.
Repeater 44

• When signals are sent over long distances, they suffer attenuation or signal loss.
• Repeaters are devices which are added to transmission systems to boost the
signal so it can travel greater distances.
• They amplify signals on both analogue (copper cable) and digital (fibre optic cable)
communication links.
• Repeaters can also be used on wireless systems.
• These are used to boost signals to prevent any ‘dead spots’ in the Wi-Fi zone.
• These devices plug into electric wall sockets and send out booster signals.
• They are termed non-logical devices because they will boost all signals which have
been detected; they are not selective.
Repeating hubs 45

• Sometimes, hubs contain repeaters and are known as repeating hubs.

• All signals fed to the hub are boosted before being sent to all devices in the
network.

• There are two main drawbacks of repeating hubs:

1. They have only one collision domain. When the signals are boosted and then
broadcast to devices, any collisions which might occur are not resolved there
and then.
2. The devices are referred to as unmanaged since they are unable to manage
delivery paths and also security in the network.
BRIDGES 46

• Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same
protocol (communication rules).
• They are often used to connect together different parts of a LAN so that they can
function as a single LAN.
Routers 47

• Routers enable data packets to be routed between the different networks for
example, to join a LAN to a WAN.
• The router takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which is using a
particular protocol) and converts the data to a protocol and format understood by
another network, thereby allowing them to communicate via the router.
Routers 48

• Summarise the role of routers as follows:

Routers 49

• A broadband router is a type of networking device that allows end users to access bro-
adband Internet from an Internet service provider (ISP).
• Broadband routers sit behind a firewall.
• The firewall protects the computers on a network.
• The router’s main function is to transmit internet and transmission protocols between
two networks and allow private networks to be connected.
• The physical address which is also called a media access control, or MAC, address ide
ntifies a device to other devices on the same local network.
• The internet address -- or IP address -- identifies the device globally.
• Since every computer on the same network has the same part of an internet protocol
(IP) address, the router is able to send the data packet to the appropriate switch
• and it will then be delivered using the MAC destination address (see next section).
• If the MAC address doesn’t match any device on the network, it passes on to another
switch on the same network until the appropriate device is found.
Gateway 50

• A gateway is a network point (or node) that acts as an entrance to another network.
• The gateway converts data packets from one protocol to another.
• Gateways can also act as routers, firewalls or servers – in other words, any device that
allows traffic to flow in and out of the networks.

Modems
• Modern computers work with digital data, whereas many of the public
communication channels still only allow analogue data transmission.
• To allow the transmission of digital data over analogue communication channels we
need to use a modem (modulator demodulator).
• This device converts digital data to analogue data. It also does the reverse
Modems 51

• Wireless modems transmit data in a modulated form to allow several simultaneous

wireless communications to take place without interfering with each other.
• A modem will connect to the public infrastructure (cable, telephone, fibre-optics or
satellite) and will supply the user with a standard Ethernet output which allows
connection to a router, thus enabling an internet connection to occur.
• While the router will allow the creation of a network in a home, for example, the
modem allows for the connection to the external networks (for example, the internet).
• Routers and modems can be combined into one unit; these devices have the
electronics and software to provide both router and modem functions.
Network interface card (NIC) 52

• A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a network

(such as the internet).
• It is usually part of the device hardware and frequently contains the MAC address
generated at the manufacturing stage. The NIC is manufactured with a unique
network address that is used to identify the end-system in which it has been installed.
• The LAN port on an end-system is connected to a Network Interface Card (NIC).
• Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same as the more
ordinary NICs, in that they are used to connect devices to the internet or other
networks.
• They use an antenna to communicate with networks via microwaves and normally
simply plug into a USB port or can be internal integrated circuit plug in.
Ethernet 53
 (CSMA/CD) 54

• If two end-systems were to transmit messages at the same time there would be what is
described as a ‘collision’.
• This is when the voltages associated with the transmission interfere with each other causing
corruption of the individual messages. The risk is that two messages using the same data
channel could be sent at the same time, leading to a collision.
• The method adopted for dealing with this was CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection).
• This relied on the fact that if a message was being transmitted there was a voltage level on the
Ethernet cable which could be detected by an end-system.
(CSMA/CD) 55

• Although there might be some legacy Ethernet LANs still operating, modern Ethernet
is switched.
• The star configuration has a switch as the central device.
• The switch controls transmission to specific end systems. Each end-system is
connected to the switch by a full-duplex link, so no collision is possible along that link.
• Since collisions are now impossible, CSMA/CD is no longer needed.
Bit streaming 56

• Bit streaming is a contiguous sequence of digital bits sent over the internet or a
network that requires a high speed data communication link.
• Since bit streaming often involves very large files (such as video) it is necessary for
the files to undergo some data compression before transmission.
• It is also necessary to have some form of buffering to ensure smooth playback of the
media files.
• The data transmission rate from the file server to the buffer must be greater than the
rate at which data is transmitted from buffer to media player.
• The media player will always check to ensure data lies between a minimum value
(often referred to as low water mark) and a maximum value (often referred to as a
high water mark).
Bit streaming 57
Bit streaming 58
Bit streaming 59
 WWW (WORLD WIDE WEB) :
internet
» This is a collection of multimedia web pages and other
documents which are stored on websites.
• massive network of networks,
made up of computers and other
» http(s) protocols are written using HyperText Mark-up
electronic devices; Language (HTML).
• It stands for interconnected
network. » Uniform resource locators (URLs) specify the location of all
• uses TCP/IP communication web pages.
protocols.
» Web resources are accessed by web browsers.
The Internet is, as has been
described above, an Internetwork. » The world wide web uses the internet to access information
By contrast, the World Wide Web from servers and other computers.
(WWW) is a distributed application
the web consists of an enormous collection of websites each
which is available on the Internet. having one or more web pages. The special feature of a web
page is that it can contain hyperlinks which, when clicked, give
direct and essentially immediate access to other web pages.
ISP 62

• the initial function of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) was to give Internet access to
an individual or company.
• This function is now performed by what we can call an ‘access ISP’. These access ISPs
then connect to what we can call ‘middle tier’ or regional ISPs, which in turn are
connected to tier 1 (or ‘backbone’) ISPs.
• An ISP is a network and connections between ISPs are handled by Internet Exchange
Points (IXPs).
• The tier 1 ISPs are at the top of the hierarchy, along with major Internet content
providers.
Router and the internet 63

• We can also think of the Internet in terms of the connections that carry the most
traffic, which consist of a set of fibre-optic cables laid under the sea and across land,
which can be described as a ‘mesh’ structure.
• This mesh of cables contains many points where the cables connect together, which
we call nodes.
• At every node is a device called the router. Routers are found not only in the general
‘mesh’ of the Internet but also within the ISP networks.
• Each router is connected to several other routers and its function is to choose the best
route for a transmission.
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) 64

• During the early years of networking the telephone network carried analogue voice data.
• However, digital data could be transmitted provided that a modem was used to convert the
digital data to analogue signals.
• Another modem was used to reverse the process at the receiving end.
• Such so-called ‘dial-up’ connections provided modest-speed, shared access when required.
• However, an organisation could instead pay for a leased line service that provided a
dedicated, permanently connected link with guaranteed transmission speed.
• Typically, organisations made use of leased lines to establish WANs
• More recently, the PSTNs have upgraded their main communication lines to fibre-optic cable
employing digital technology.
• This has allowed them to offer improved leased line services to ISPs but has also given them
the opportunity to provide their own ISP services.
• In this role they provide two types of service:
• The first is a broadband network connection for traditional network access.
• The second is WiFi hotspot technology.
Cell phone network 65

• For users of devices with mobile (cell) phone capability there is an alternative method
for gaining Internet access.
• This is provided by mobile phone companies acting as ISPs.
• The mobile phone, equipped with the appropriate software, communicates with a
standard cell tower to access the wireless telephone network, which in turn provides a
connection to the Internet.
IP(Internet Protocol) addressing 66

• The Internet requires technical protocols to function. A protocol suite called TCP/IP is
used as a standard.
• One aspect of this is IP addressing, which is used to define from where and to where
data is being transmitted.
• An Internet Protocol address is a numerical label such as 192.0.2.1 that is assigned to a
device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.
• IPv4 was devised in the late 1970s, before the invention of the PC and the mobile
phone.
• IPv4 provides for a large but limited number of addresses for devices, which is no
longer enough to cover all the devices expected to use the Internet in future.
IP addressing
▪ is used to define from where and to where
• The system uses the group of bits to
define network (netID) and network
data is being transmitted.
host (hostID).
• A network ID or NetID is the ▪ IPv4 addressing scheme is based on 32 bits
fragment of IP address that
classifies the network for a
specified host i.e., it tells us which ▪ The 32 bits allow 232 different addresses.
network the host belongs to
• It is the fragment of an IP address ▪ IPv4 was devised in the late 1970s, before
that uniquely classifies a host on a
the invention of the PC and the mobile
specified TCP/IP network.
phone.
A packet with a destination address that is not
on the same network as the source address will
be forwarded, or routed, to the appropriate ▪ IPv4 provides for a large but limited number
network. Once on the correct network, the host of addresses for devices, which is no longer
part of the address determines which interface
the packet gets delivered to. enough to cover all the devices expected to
use the Internet in future.
The other feature of the original scheme was that allocated addresses were based on the concept of different
classes of networks. There were five classes; we are going to look at the first three classes.
 70
Class B
191.255.255.255 = 10111111.11111111.11111111.11111111

127.255.255.255 = 01111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 Class A

223.255.255.255 = 11011111.11111111.11111111.11111111 Class C

IPv4 71

• It soon became clear that this IPv4 system provides insufficient

address range.
• For example, a user with a medium sized network (class B) might have
284 host machines and their class B licence allows them 216 (65534;
note the value is not 65536 since two values are not assigned).
• This means several of the allocated host IDs will not be used, which is
wasteful.
Classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) 72
• This retains the concept of a netID and a hostID but removes the rigid structure and allows the split between
the netID and the hostID to be varied to suit individual need.

• The simple method used to achieve this is to add an 8-bit suffix to the address that specifies the number of
bits for the netID.

The 21 bits representing the netID have been highlighted. The remaining 11 bits represent the hostID which
would therefore have the binary value 11000001110.
Sub-netting Example: o We can consider a medium-sized
organisation with about 150 employees
each with their own computer workstation.
o Let’s assume that there are six individual
department LANs and one head-office
o Note that the diagram has been simplified
by showing the LANs connected to a
gateway. This is a device that connects
networks with different protocols. For the
connection to the Internet the gateway
would either first connect to a router or
have the capability to act as a router itself.
o The organisation would need seven
individual Class C netIDs; one for each
LAN. Each of these would point to one of
the LAN gateways
o This would mean 256 individual codes for
Since the organisation only has 150 workstations in total, there
identifying different workstations on just
are 1642 unused addresses. Not only would these be unused
they would be unavailable for use by any other organisation.
one LAN. For the seven LANs the total
number of workstations that could be
identified would be: 256 × 7 = 1792.
 Sub-netting Example: o The sub-netting solution for this
organisation would require allocating
just one Class C netID.
o The sub-netting now works by having a
defined structure for the 256 codes
constituting the hostID.
o A sensible solution for this
organisation is to use the top three bits
as a code for the individual LANs and
the remaining five bits as codes for the
individual workstations.
o On the Internet, all of the allocated IP
addresses have a netID pointing to the
hostID code 00001110 would be the address for workstation
router. The router then has to interpret
14 on the head office LAN 0 (LAN 000) the hostID to direct the transmission to
hostID code 01110000 would be the address for workstation the appropriate workstations on one of
16 on LAN 3 (LAN 011). the LANS via a gateway
With 150 workstations the organisation hasn’t used all of the 256 allocated IP addresses. However, there are only 106 unused which is a
reasonable number to have available in case of future expansion.
Sub-netting Example: o The subnet mask is used to divide up
which portion of the address
represents the network ID and which
part is used for the hosts on the
network.

In order to determine what the Network ID is, we need to AND

each bit
our Network ID:
•192.168.100.0: 11000000.10101000.01110000.00000000
Network address translation (NAT) 76
• it deviates from the principle that every IP address should be unique.
• In this scheme, provision has been made for large organisations to have private
networks (intranets) which use the same protocols as those used for the Internet.
• The NAT box has one IP address which is visible over the Internet and so can be
used as a sending address or as a receiving address.
• Internally the IP addresses have to be chosen from one of the three ranges of IP
addresses shown in Table
Network address translation (NAT)
• The important point is that each address can be simultaneously used by any 77

number of different private networks.

• There is no knowledge of such use on the Internet itself or in any other private
network.
• The interface in the NAT box has software installed to examine each incoming or
outgoing transmission. There can be a security check before an incoming
transmission is directed to the correct internal address.
Private IP addresses and public IP addresses 78

• Private IP addresses are reserved for internal use behind a router or other NAT device.
• Private IP addresses (which are internal value only) allow for an entirely separate set
of addresses within a network.
• They allow access to the network without taking up a public IP address space.
• However, devices using these private IP addresses cannot be reached by internet
users.

• Public IP addresses are the ones allocated by a user’s ISP to identify the location of
their device.
• Devices using these IP addresses are accessible from anybody using the internet.
Static IP addresses 79

• Definition: A static IP address is a permanent numerical label assigned to a device connected

to the internet. It remains unchanged for as long as the device is connected to the network.

Characteristics:
•Fixed: Does not change over time.
•Unique: Each device with a static IP address has a unique identifier.
•Direct Access: Allows direct access to the device on the network.
•Cost: Typically requires an additional fee from the Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Use Cases:
Servers: Web servers, email servers, and database servers often use static IP addresses for
consistent accessibility and management.
•Gaming: Some online games require static IP addresses for multiplayer functionality or to
avoid being disconnected.
Static IP addresses 80

• Definition: A static IP address is a permanent numerical label assigned to a device connected

to the internet. It remains unchanged for as long as the device is connected to the network.

Characteristics:
•Fixed: Does not change over time.
•Unique: Each device with a static IP address has a unique identifier.
•Direct Access: Allows direct access to the device on the network.
•Cost: Typically requires an additional fee from the Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Use Cases:
Servers: Web servers, email servers, and database servers often use static IP addresses for
consistent accessibility and management.
•Gaming: Some online games require static IP addresses for multiplayer functionality or to
avoid being disconnected.
 Dynamic IP addresses 81

• Definition: A dynamic IP address is a temporary numerical label assigned to a device

connected to the internet. It can change each time the device connects to the network

•Characteristics:Temporary:
•Changes over time.
•Shared: Multiple devices can share the same dynamic IP address at different times.
•Indirect Access: Requires Network Address Translation (NAT) to map the dynamic IP
address to the device's internal IP address.
•Cost: Typically included in the basic internet service plan.

• Use Cases:
• Home Users: Most home users have dynamic IP addresses
 IPv6 82

❑There must soon be a

migration to IP version 6
• IPv6 has benefits over IPv4, it
• has no need for NATs (network
(IPv6), which uses a 128-bit
address translation) addressing scheme allowing
• removes risk of private IP 2128 different addresses
address collisions
• has built in authentication ❑The addresses are written in
• allows for more efficient routing. a colon hexadecimal
notation.
❑ The code is broken into 16-
bit parts, with each part
represented by four
hexadecimal characters.
83
Domain name service (DNS) 84

• Web browsers are software that allow users to access and display web pages on their
screens.
• They interpret HTML sent from websites and display the results.
• Web browsers use uniform resource locators (URL) to access websites; these are represented
by a set of four numbers, such as 109.108.158.1.
• But it is much easier to type this into a browser using the following format: protocol://website
address/path/filename
• The domain name service (DNS) (also known as domain name system) gives domain names
for internet hosts and is a system for finding IP addresses of a domain name.
• Domain names eliminate the need for a user to memorise IP addresses.
• The DNS process involves converting a host name (such as www.hoddereducation.co.uk) into
an IP address the computer can understand (such as 107.162.140.19).
• Often, DNS servers contain a database of URLs with the matching IP addresses.
Domain name service (DNS) 85

① The user opens their web browser and types in the URL
(www.hoddereducation.co.uk) and the web browser asks
the DNS server (1) for the IP address of the website.
② The DNS server can’t find www.hoddereducation.co.uk
in its database or its cache and sends out a request to DNS
server (2).
③ DNS server (2) finds the URL and can map it to
107.162.140.19; the IP address is sent back to DNS server
(1) which now puts the IP address and associated URL into
its cache/database.
④ This IP address is then sent back to the user’s
computer.
⑤ The computer now sets up a communication with the
website server and the required pages are downloaded. The
web browser interprets the HTML and displays the
information on the user’s screen.